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COPYRIGHT DEPOSHV 



PRINCIPLES AND 
PROCESSES ^/EDUCATION 



'. H. BF 



BY 

Wi : , BRUCE, A. M., Ph. D., 



PRESIDENT NORTH TEXAS STATE NORMAL COLLEGE 



Pallas, tyexasi 

C. A. BRYANT COMPANY 

1916 



Copyright 1916 

by 
C. A. BRYANT 




APR -5 1916 
<Q)GI.A427581 






Sfi 



i. 



TO 

THE TWENTY THOUSAND TEACHERS OF TEXAS 

So Many of Whom Are My Personal Friends, 

And Whose Esteem I so Highly Prize, 

This Volume Is Dedicated 

With the Professional Regard and Personal Affection 
of the Author. 



CONTENTS 

chapter i 

The Biological Basis of Education .... 3 
The Young of Lower Orders of Animals. Life 
Cycles. Parental Care. Human Infancy. Period 
of Infancy Lengthened. Heredity, Family Traits, 
Acquired Characteristics. Congenital Traits Trans- 
mitted. Talents Kun in Families. Man Can be 
Educated. Man Must be Educated. Period of Plas- 
ticity. Youth the Time for Habit Formation. Im- 
portance of Early Training. 

chapter ii 

The Aims op Education . . . . . .14 

Definition of Education. Main Aim of Education. 
Spartan, Athenian, and Boman Ideals. Modern 
Ideals. Development and Adjustment Aim. Knowl- 
edge Aim. Culture Aim. Service Aim. Selfish 
Conception of Education.. 

chapter iii 

Educational Agencies 23 

Environment. Experience. The Home. The 
School. The Vocation. The State. The Church. 

chapter rv 

The School .31 

The School the Outgrowth of Complexity of So- 
ciety. Ancient Views of Education. Modern Views 
of Education. Standards. 

VII 



VIII CONTENTS 

chapter v 

Physical Conditions of the School . . . 86 

The School Site. The Buildings. The Grounds. 
Lighting. Heating. Ventilation. Furniture. 

chapter vi 

The Functions op the School ..... 44 
Specific Aims of Education. Acquisition of 
Knowledge. Power. Skill. Character. Continuous 
Education. Social Center Movement. Extension 
Work of Universities. 

chapter vii 

The Course op Study 53 

Definite Course for Each School. Doctrine of 
Formal Discipline. Individual Aptitudes. Types of 
Memory. College Entrance Requirements. Two 
Standards Attempted by High Schools. Suggested 
Method for the Correlation of Schools. The Efficient 
Man. Liberal and Vocational Education. The Elec- 
tive System. Wide Range of Electives Impossible. 
Groups of Studies Practicable. 

chapter viii 

The Character, Qualifications, and Rewards of the 

Teacher 72 

Character Essential. Society Demands High 
Character of the Teacher. Scholarship. Growth. 
Opportunities for Growth. Means of Growth. Meth- 
ods of Growth. Personality of the Teacher. Atti- 
tude of the Teacher. Types of Teachers. Rewards 
of the Teacher. 

chapter ix 

Sensory Education . . . * . . . .96 

All Knowledge Comes Through the Senses. First- 
hand Knowledge Most Reliable. Careless Observers. 



CONTENTS IX 

Laboratory Methods. Inductive Philosophy. Use 
of Pictures and Picture Machines. Drawing and 
Music. Agriculture. Manual Training. Domestic 
Science. The Teacher is the Workman, the Me- 
chanic, and the Architect. 

chapter x 

The Concept in Education ... . . 116 

The Education of Helen Keller. Sensation. Per- 
ception. Observation. The Percept. The Image. 
Imagination. Apperception. Changes in the Con- 
cepts. Formation of Concepts. 

chapter xi 

The Process of Thinking 126 

The Three Stages of Thinking. Conception. Judg- 
ment. Reasoning. Remedy for Faulty Judgment. 
Thinking Fatigues the Mind. Credulity, Skepticism 
and Prejudice. Achievements of Original Think- 
ers, Newton, Roemer, Adams, Le Verrier. Induc- 
tion. Deduction. Perfect Induction. Imperfect 
Induction. Mathematical Induction. Demonstrative 
Reasoning. Algebraic Method. Geometric Reasoning. 

chapter xii 

Teaching Pupils to Think 145 

Attention to Details. New Objects. Excursions. 
One Thing at a Time. Language. 

chapter xiii 

The Lesson 154 

i. the lesson assignment 

The Lesson Assignment. Principles of the As- 
signment. Methods of the Assignment. Rules for the 
Assignment. Time for the Assignment. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XIV 



The Lesson Continued ....»,. 169 
iii. the lesson preparation 

Incorrect Methods of Study. Real Study. Prep- 
aration of the Student. Preparation of the Teacher. 
Lesson Plans. 

chapter xv 

The Lesson Continued 204 

hi. the lesson recitation 

The Recitation. The Purposes of the Recitation. 
Rules of the Recitation. Forms of the Recitation. 
Methods of the Recitation. Steps of the Recitation. 

chapter xvi 

Testing the Results op Teaching . . . .228 
The Recitaiton Period. The Study Period. The 
Playground Period. The Written Test. The Ex- 
amination. 



chapter xvii 

School Government 250 

Discipline. Purpose of Discipline. School Regu- 
lations. Enforcement of Regulations. Penalties 
and Punishment. Principles Governing Penalties 
and Punishment. 



chapter xviii 

Play and Athletics in Education .... 257 

Kinds of Play. Modern View of Play. Value of 
Play. Athletics in Modern Schools. Advantages of 
Athletics. 



CONTENTS XI 

chapter xix 

The Rural School Problem 273 

The Rural Problem. Exodus from the Country. 
The Rural School. Consolidation of Schools. Trans- 
portation of Pupils. Course of Study. County 
Supervision. The County Institute. The Social 
Center. 



PREFACE 

The author's aim in this book has been to state 
in simple and compact form some of the funda- 
mental principles of education and to suggest how 
these may be applied in the processes of teaching 
in our public schools. 

The book is not a treatise on School Manage- 
ment. To have undertaken a discussion of the 
principles of school administration would have 
extended the volume beyond its contemplated size. 
There are many excellent treatises on this phase 
of school work that are available to the teacher. 

Neither has there been an attempt to particular- 
ize concerning the methods of teaching specific 
subjects, but it is hoped that the careful reader 
will find throughout the work a discussion of the 
principles upon which the general processes of 
the teaching of all subjects are based. 

The author is aware that the book is but a 
meager contribution to the volume of extant peda- 
gogical literature. Throughout the work he has 
endeavored to stress principles instead of details, 
and to make helpful suggestions instead of dog- 
matical statements. He believes with Emerson, 
that "the best part of a book is not what it con- 
tains, but what it suggests." 

The author's obligations in the preparation of 
the work are heavy. Hon. W. F. Doughty, State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction for Texas, 



PBEFACE 

has read all the manuscript and made valuable 
suggestions from time to time. Mr. W. C. Ed- 
wards, editor of the Eecord and Chronicle (Den- 
ton), has been of great service in carefully read- 
ing and criticising the manuscript. Mr. J. K. 
Swenson, Miss M. Anne Moore, and Mr. J. W. 
Smith, all of the North Texas State Normal Col- 
lege, have rendered valuable assistance. Mr. 
Swenson wrote Chapters XVIII and XIX ; Miss 
Moore contributed Chapters XII, XTV and XV, 
on "The Lesson"; Mr. Smith prepared the index, 
by means of which the value of the book is greatly 
increased. The competency and the interest of 
Miss Gertrude Wear, with the assistance of Mr. 
A. C. McGinnis, in preparing type written cop- 
ies of the manuscript, rendered it possible for the 
book to appear on time. Proper recognition has 
been given to those who kindly furnished the les- 
son plans where the plans, themselves, have been 
introduced. 



Denton, Texas. 
February 4, 1916. 



CHAPTER I 

THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION 

If we compare the young child with the young 
domestic animal, we are impressed with the utter 
helplessness of the child, and the long time it 
requires the constant and watchful care of the 
parent. If we contrast the young of the domestic 
animal with that of a still lower order of animal Theyotmsr 
life, we find that in the ability to take care of itself animal 
the young of the lower order is the superior. Con- 
tinuing this examination "backwards or down- 
wards, through different orders of animal life, 
when we reach the protozoon, the lowest order 
recognized by the biologist, we find that the young 
has all the traits of the mature protozoon. 

If a drop of water, taken from a stagnant pool 
and placed on a glass slip, be examined with a good 
microscope, it will be found teeming with animal 
life. These minute animals, too small to be seen 
with the unaided eye, have all the functions neces- 
sary to life. The entire body of one of these pro- 
tozoa is composed of a single cell, whereas the 
body of an animal of higher order is composed of 
almost innumerable cells. Selecting for examina- 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The 

amoeba 



Reproduction 
of the amoeba 



life cycle 
of the 

mosquito. 



Wasps de- 
posit supply 
of food in 
nests. 



tion the amoeba, one of the simplest of protozoa, 
we find that the body is not made up of distinct 
organs, such as brain, heart, and lungs. There 
are no nerves, no muscles, no stomach. The single 
cell constituting the body performs in a simple 
manner all the functions necessary to the life of 
the amoeba. The soft body, coming in contact with 
a particle of matter suitable for food, presses 
itself around it and absorbs it. The entire struc- 
ture of the cell performs the same function for the 
amoeba that the stomach performs for the higher 
animal. 

The amoeba's method of reproduction is equally 
simple. When it reaches a certain state the body 
becomes elongated. About midway between the 
ends begins a depression or fission, which in- 
creases until the body is completely divided into 
two separate parts, each part becoming a distinct 
animal, a duplicate of the old one. Each is half 
the original parent. This process is called repro- 
duction by fission. 

Passing from the protozoon to a much higher 
form of life, let us observe a few species of 
insects. The mosquito deposits its eggs in stag- 
nant water in which the young larva finds suitable 
food. When it has passed through the larval and 
pupal stages, it emerges from the water a complete 
adult mosquito, in all respects equal to the parent. 
The entire cycle from egg to adult has been no 
more than ten days. As a mosquito, it has no 
childhood and no education. 

The wasp, a higher order of insect, prepares a 
crude kind of nest, in which are deposited the eggs, 



THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION 

together with the bodies of spiders or small insects 
and larvaB to serve for food for the young when 
the eggs have hatched. With food at hand suffi- 
cient to take them through the larval stage, the 
young wasps come out fully developed. 

Most species of spiders spin cocoons in which ®£o?" t s co . 
to deposit great numbers of eggs. Some species «™»» %%£& 
carry these cocoons about with them for protec- ess*. 
tion of the eggs until they are hatched. Then the 
young spiders feed upon one another, and but few 
of the most vigorous survive. 

The parent bird gathers food for the young and ■Jgfcg* - 
guards the nest often at the risk of her own life JJ®^ ffulltil 
while the young are helpless. It is only a few they can ay. 
weeks, at most, however, until the young birds can 
spread their wings, fly away, find their own food, 
and avoid all danger. 

Mammals in the wild state conceal their young, Mammals 
nourish and protect them during infancy, but in a their young- 
few months the young become self-sustaining and time. °* 
are abandoned and forgotten. Birds and mam- 
mals, having a brief period of infancy, are trained 
by their parents in some instances, young birds 
being taught to fly and kittens to catch mice. 

Summing up, these instances illustrate the fact JjJJJgSta 
that in the lowest forms of animal life infancy is SHuSE" 
lacking altogether, and the new-born animal is not Jjfljj£* fonn8 
dependent upon the parent, but it instinctively 
meets all the demands of its simple life as effi- 
ciently as it ever will. But it can not profit by 
experience. In all things it acts just as its ances- 
tors acted. It can do nothing to vary from its 
progenitors. Nature, or heredity, has done every- 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Heredity, not 
education, 
the depend- 
ence of lower 

animals. 



Elimination 
of the 
weakest, a 
developing' 
agency. 



The human 

Infant 

helpless. 



Nerve 
connections 
made 
■lowly. 



Han does 
not rely 
npon instinct. 



thing for it ; education, nothing. In its organism 
there are no nerve cells to be adjusted; there is 
no period of infancy, for no such period is neces- 
sary. The instances cited illustrate also that the 
young among vertebrates are dependent in vary- 
ing degrees and for varying lengths of time upon 
parental care, the period of helplessness and 
dependence increasing as the type of animal rises 
in the scale of complexity and intelligence. For 
the young of the verebrate, or higher order of ani- 
mal, heredity has done almost everything. Some 
necessary nervous connections have not been made 
before birth. It is not altogether able to survive 
if neglected or unprotected. It has something 
to learn before it can become self sustaining. 
That is, it is educable. But the capacity for edu- 
cation, even for birds and mammals, is quite 
limited. The only developing agency of the spec- 
cies is the relentless elimination of the weakest. 

Helplessness of the Infant. — Contrasted with all 
all other orders of animal life, man is unique. 
Destined for the most complex and varied future, 
he is, at birth, the least prepared for it. Of all 
animals he is at birth the most utterly helpless, 
the most dependent. Left unattended, he could 
survive but a few hours. He enters the threshold 
of life with few of the nerve connections and 
adjustments made, and the comparative slowness 
with which these connections are made explains 
the long time required for their completion and 
the preparation of the human infant for its life. 

But this delay and these deficiencies in undevel- 
oped instincts are vastly overbalanced by his infin- 



THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION 7 

ite potentialities. It is not that the child has fewer 
instincts than the young of the lower orders of 
life, but that he is less dependent upon instinct 
and relies more upon the ability to choose among 
instincts. 

Even in savage life, where the chief nervous period of 
connections necessary are only those that enable infancy is 
man to supply rude shelter, simple food, and crude 1<m *' 
clothing, and to fashion the common implements 
of the hunt and the hand-to-hand conflict, the 
period of infancy is years longer than that of the 
higher orders of mammalian life. In the complex- 
ity of a vastly higher civilization, the child's 
dependence upon parental and institutional sup- 
port is correspondingly longer. 

The human infant seldom learns to walk before Heredity 
the end of the first year ; his speech is fragmentary parttiveiy 
for two years more. His babyhood is spent under S£! for 
the immediate tuition of the other members of the 
family, his childhood in the elementary school, his 
youth in the high school, and if he prepares with 
any degree of adequacy for active participation 
in a learned or scientific profession, several years £ust a dJ on 
beyond his legal majority must be spent in uni- mucl1 - 
versity or technical school, largely dependent upon 
others for guidance and support until twenty-five 
or thirty years of age. Heredity has done for him 
comparatively little. Education must do for him 
a great deal. He is capable of progress. He need 
not live the life of his parents. His generation 
need not be like that of his father. 

In another notable way is man differentiated *an'« 
from the animals next below him. They profit to ln,lerlta,lce • 



8 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

a limited extent from their individual experiences ; 
he profits, not only from his own experiences, but 
also from the experiences of others. To him, 
ancestry has transmitted its history and its accu- 
mulated knowledge, its institutions, and its con- 
quest of nature. He knows of the dangers, trials, 
triumphs, and discoveries of the race, and, as a 
generation, he begins where the preceding genera- 
tion stopped. 
Heredity. Heredity. — It is pertinent to enquire here ex- 

exactly what the child owes to heredity. Heredity 
includes those possessions that an organism brings 
with it into the world. If heredity has done noth- 
maividu- * n & ^ or them, all children are born with equal pos- 
autyin sibilities. Investigation in any home readily 

discloses the fact that there are marked differ- 
ences between children of the same parents; dif- 
ferences in traits, capacities, and proclivities. 

trait?. 7 Family Traits.— The variations between chil- 

dren of the same parents are, as a general rule, 
less marked than those between children of differ- 
ent parentage. There are usually family traits 
and resemblances more or less marked in physical 
features; color of the eyes or the hair, facial 
expression, etc. Even if the physical likenesses 
seem lacking among brothers and sisters, fre- 
qently there are noticeable resemblances in mental 
traits, aptitudes, tastes, or tendencies. 

If we study the histories of different families, 
we will often find that each has had its own apti- 
tudes for several generations. Some have been 
characterized by scholarship or achievements in 
science or love of the fine arts, while others have 



THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION V 

been notorious for penuriousness, dishonesty, or 
thriftlessness. Investigation of a family through 
several generations has disclosed such individual 
traits of an ancestor throughout a long line of 
posterity. 

One of these investigations has brought JJ^fjjT* 1 ** 
into prominence the descendants of Jonathan 
Edwards, an American clergyman of the eight- 
eenth century. He was a man of exceptional intel- 
lect, signal ability, sterling character, and broad 
education. Among the more than 1,400 of his 
descendants who have been located, were found 
many whose accomplishments in various fields 
rendered them conspicuous — college presidents 
and professors, ministers, physicians, governors 
of state, members of Congress, and an almost total 
absence of paupers and criminals. 

The descendants of a thriftless fisherman, who 
was born in New York in 1720, have afforded 
another remarkable illustration of the constant 
reappearance of a family characteristic. Among 
the more than 1,200 individuals descended from 
this fisherman, who have been located, were found 
200 convicted criminals, many habitual thieves and 
burglars, some murderers, and more than 300 pro- 
fessional beggars. Immorality of the lowest type The "juke 
was a constantly recurring characteristic of this, ramily -" 
the notorious "Juke Family. " 

Investigation of a line of descent from a feeble- 
minded girl led to the discovery that, of about 200 
individuals, found in what Dr. Gordon calls the 
"Kallikak Family", more than 150 were feeble- !5® lllkak 
minded, noted for their delinquency, degeneracy, Pamil y-" 



10 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Acquired 
character, 
lstics not 
trans, 
missible. 



Congenital 
traits trans, 
missible. 



Talents run 
In families. 



Genius not 
understood. 



imbecility, pauperism, and criminality. 

While, by a few writers, heredity is used to 
include those qualities, characteristics, and habits, 
acquired by parents in their lifetime, it is no 
longer generally believed that acquired traits are 
transmissible, since all evidence accumulated on 
this subject does not point to an unquestioned 
example of the transmission of an acquired char- 
acteristic from a parent to a child. The prepond- 
erance of competent opinion is now that acquired 
traits are transmitted rarely, if ever, and that if 
there be a transmission of such traits, it takes 
place in so small a degree as to be altogether neg- 
ligible. 

We may assert, therefore, that children inherit 
from their parents only those characteristics 
which the parents, themselves, inherited — charac- 
teristics that are congenital, inherent, in-born in 
the race. 

Admitting that talents "run in families", one 
is constrained to believe that the children of gifted 
parents are much more apt than others less for- 
tunately born to develop those talents which made 
their parents notable. There is now no dispute 
concerning the advantages of birth, considered as 
to the in-born capacities derived through racial 
inheritance. As certainly as it will tell in the 
thoroughbred horse, "blood will tell" in man, for, 
as Emerson says, "There must be capacity for cul- 
ture in blood". 

Many of the problems of genius are still 
unsolved. How a Shakespeare, a Poe, or an Edi- 
son appears suddenly is not understood. Educa- 



THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION 11 

tion can not do all. It develops but it does not 
create. Education does not supply the capacity; 
it assists the individual to make the best use of develops: it 
his inherited capacities, his training, experience, c^ate. 
and environment. It can not develop a mediocre 
mind into a master in any art or profession. 
Much of the deftness of touch that leads to pre- Preeminence 

... .... often due to 

eminence m music, in surgery, and in painting is m-bom 
in-born. Education ought to discover such talent capaci y " 
or genius, and provide the opportunity for its 
development to the highest usefulness, as well as 
to raise the ordinary individual to the level of the 
race. 

The individual can not control his birth, his jjgjkma 
talents, or his lack of talent descended unto him j»etouw 

j, . . Tola own life. 

from previous generations, but he is born free to 
live his own life, to work out, within the limit of 
his capacity, his own destiny. The acquired traits 
of his parents are denied him, but he comes into 
his life unhampered by inherited prejudices, pre- 
dilections, biases, idiosyncrasies, or their acquired 
tendencies. He is rich in the common inheritance 
and achievements of his race; he has a share in 
the improved social and economic conditions 
which have been handed down to him by his 
ancestors. 

Educability. — The capacity for receiving educa- significance 
cation hinges in all the animal kingdom on the the Slze 
comparative size of the cerebrum, which indicates c 
the capacity for construction, the power of form- 
ing adjustments, the adaptability to environment. 
The recognition of this fact (now no longer seri- 
ously questioned) gives to man the greatest capac- 



12 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Man can foe 
educated. 



Man must be 
educated. 



Necessity 
for long 
period of 
Infancy. 



Period of 

plasticity 



Education 
more diffi- 
cult after 
adolescent 
period. 



TTouth the 
time for 
hahlt 
formation. 



ity for education. It gives him, too, the greatest 
need for education, for, because of his lack of pre- 
natal nerve adjustment and of the inability of his 
parents to transmit to him their acquired charac- 
teristics, without education — did he survive — he 
would remain the most helpless of all creatures. 

Hence, the necessity for a prolonged period of 
infancy, a period of the acquisition of experiences, 
of development of faculties, of acquiring the 
power of adaptation to environment, of prepara- 
tion for complex existence. 

Period of Plasticity. — There is still another fact 
of stupendous import that must not be ignored. 
The period of immaturity, including infancy, 
childhood, and adolescence is also the period of 
plasticity, the period of adjustment — in other 
words, the period of education. Those adjustments 
that fit man for the higher, broader, and richer 
life, immeasurably above the attainment of the 
lower animal, must be carefully formed while 
young. After adolescence the nervous tissue loses 
some of its plasticity; the formation of new con- 
nections becomes more and more difficult as the 
years go by. It is said that after the age of twenty- 
five no one learns to speak a new language without 
accent. Youth is the most opportune time for 
habit formation ; impressions are then more easily 
made and are most unalterably fixed. Later im- 
pressions are less vivid and less permanent. 
Habit of neatness, of punctuality, of industry, of 
thoughtful observation, formed when young, cling 
to one through life frequently. Attempts to 
acquire in later life those delicate tastes that 



THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION 13 

mark culture, or even to master the conventional- 
ities of society, generally end only in failure, and 
often render ludicrous those affecting them. 
High ideals and great ambitions can be implanted 
in the minds of the young, and these properly 
cared for, ennoble the entire life, while a neglected 
youth often results in low ideals, lack of ambition, 
and a disappointed old age. 

At sixteen the greater number of personal hab- J* 1 *®.^ 66 
its have been formed, the ideals established, and training, 
the manners crystallized. Some writers seem to 
delight in discovering examples of great thinkers, 
scholars, or inventors, who, in youth, were indo- 
lent, careless, and intractable. Doubtless many 
such examples may be found, but their number 
might be multipled many times without detracting 
from the tremendous importance of proper educa- 
tion during the adolescent period of life. 



CHAPTER II 



THE AIMS OF EDUCATION 



Definition of 
education 

difficult. 



Main aim of 
education. 



Spartan 
education 
emphasized 
duty to 
State. 



It is well nigh impossible to give a definition of 
education that would be accepted by even a 
respectable minority of those whose experience 
and training give them the right to speak authori- 
tatively. The subject is so vast; it presents so 
many phases; it can be surveyed from so many 
viewpoints, that differences of opinion as to what 
education is, should not occasion surprise. 

An individual's conception of the aims of edu- 
cation is determined by his ideals of what a man 
ought to be; a nation's conception, by its ideal of 
what a good citizen is. There are as many types 
of education as there are types of manhood. 

One of the aims of education is the indoctrina- 
tion of the young into correct standards of desire, 
safe criteria of conduct, and right conception of 
life. The child is led more easily in the direction 
of his wishes, therefore, his inclinations should be 
directed while he is still young. Adults, them- 
selves, endure drudgery only when it promises the 
realization of something that pleases the fancy, 
gratifies ambition, or offers satisfaction of some 
kind. 

Spartan Education. — Sparta affords, probably, 
the best illustration of that type of education 
which suppresses the individuality of the citizen 



THE AIMS OF EDUCATION 15 

for the benefit of the State. To the ancient Spar- 
tan, patriotism was the overshadowing virtue. 
To him duty to State was paramount. The war- 
rior was the ideal man. The constant menace of 
rebellion of conquered tribes, political jealousy of 
other cities, arising also to power and affluence, 
caused Sparta to emphasize military training. 
The Spartan aim of education was, therefore, to 
develop physical strength, to instil courage, to 
induce fortitude, and to inculcate obedience to 
authority. Spartan education concerned itself 
only with the duty of the citizen to the State; it 
totally ignored the duty of man to man. 

Athenian Education. — Athens esteemed beauty Athenian 
as well as strength. Symmetry and proportion emphasised 
were characteristics of her architecture. Athenian matxae - 
education cultivated the arts of peace as well as 
those of war. It laid great emphasis upon culture 
as displayed in architecture, sculpture, painting, 
and literature. Wisdom in council was regarded 
as praiseworthy as courage on the battlefield. 

Roman Education. — In Rome education had a jjgJUg^ 
cast that in modern expression would be termed emphasised 
practical. The concrete appealed to the Roman 
mind more forcibly than the purely abstract. The 
Roman prized the useful more highly than the 
aesthetic. He strove for achievement of some- 
thing of material value. He placed a lower esti- 
mate upon the skill necessary to the production of 
a statue or a painting than upon the knowledge 
requisite in the construction of a highway or an 
aqueduct. 

In both Athens and Rome patriotism was a 



16 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Modern 
education Is 
a 'blend of 
former 
types. 



Man craves 
tolbea 
pioneer in 
something. 



virtue, cowardice a vice, and treason a crime, but 
in neither was the individual despoiled of his 
individuality. 

In personal bearing the Spartan exhibited 
strength; the Athenian, grace; the Roman, dig- 
nity. The Spartan idealized courage ; the Athen- 
ian, beauty; the Eoman, utility. In both Athens 
and Eome the statesman and the orator shared 
honors with the warrior. 

Many types of the more modern education have 
partaken of the elements of the types of Sparta, 
Athens, or Eome. Most modern types have been 
different blends of two or of all of them, modified 
as the changes in social and economic conditions 
have from time to time demanded. 

Although different ages, different races, and 
different nations have always had different edu- 
cational ideals; although philosophers have been 
at variance concerning educational aims and proc- 
esses, there is not now a wide diversity of opinion 
among students of education with respect to what 
education ought to do for a man; what, in the 
main, it ought to make of him. 

Eacial differences, influences of environment, 
and inherited predisposition account for the con- 
trariety of doctrine that has bewildered the young 
student of education, and caused him to doubt that 
education is a science. Candid, sincere, thinkers 
often reach contradictory conclusions, but the 
iconoclast may be safely charged with unwar- 
ranted assumptions and with the advocacy of the- 
ories that are sometimes advanced for solely mer- 
cenary or selfish purposes. Some cults, schools, 



THE AIMS OF EDUCATION 17 

and sects have, no doubt, owed their origin to 
influences not wholly sincere. Man naturally 
craves to be a discoverer, a pathfinder, and the 
temptation to claim a new discovery or to evolve 
a new theory is sometimes too great for one whose 
passion for attracting public attention is exces- 
sively developed. 

Adjustment.— That education means the devel- SfSSSSL 
opment of all the potentialities and capabilities of JSJltiEent 
man, it is substantially agreed. It is the process 
of leading him into the full possession of all the 
achievements of his racial inheritance. Education 
means his development along the lines of the high- 
est and best ideals attained by civilization. It is 
a process of adjustment to conditions, circum- 
stances, state of society, to climate, to human insti- 
tutions, to ideals of probity and integrity and con- 
ceptions of perfect manhood developed by cen- 
turies of human struggle towards perfection. 

It is with difficulty that species of the lower ani- ^ s |f f 3 ^ 8 
mals adjust themselves to environments that pre- conditions, 
sent even little variation. Man, in order to 
attain to his highest estate, must acquire the abil- 
ity to adjust himself to environment of wide vari- 
ation. That he has done so, and is continually 
doing so, is obvious. He meets changing condi- 
tions of climate, of seasons, and of weather by 
change of clothing and food. By his knowledge of 
producing fire and manufacturing ice, he renders 
habitable alike the frigid and the torrid zone. 

In his efforts better to adjust himself to environ- Man controls 
ments, to improve his social and economic condi- SnSure! 
tions, he has learned to control, direct and subdue 



18 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



There are 
different 
degrees in 
the value 
of 
knowledge. 



Society 
demands the 
diffusion of 

knowledge. 



Culture is 
concerned In 
what the 
man is. 



the forces of nature, substituting them for his 
own muscular energy. He has learned in field and 
farm, in mill and mine, at home and on the street, 
from books, laboratories, experiments, lectures, 
museums, travel, and associations. 

Knowledge. — Every phase of life is educational. 
All experiences produce knowledge and add to 
its store for each individual. All knowledge is 
valuable, but there are various degrees of value. 
Some knowledge — some facts — are too trivial and 
insignificant to employ the mind when it can be 
more profitably directed to the quest of knowledge 
of real moment. Some facts, however — them- 
selves seemingly insignificant — are indexes that 
point to more valuable facts. The immense ad- 
vance made in the progress of the race by the use 
of the numerous kinds of steam engine is due to 
the knowledge of the apparently unimportant fact 
that liquids subjected to heat vaporize with 
enormous expansion. 

The diffusion of knowledge is necessary to its 
becoming a factor in education. Society demands 
that all knowledge be made available. Copyright 
and patent right laws are made to encourage origi- 
nal thought and investigation, but the discoverer 
of a new principle or the inventor of a new appli- 
cation of an old principle is expected to bestow his 
discovery upon the public. He must not withhold 
that which he has found to be capable of contribut- 
ing to the health or happiness of mankind. 

Culture. — Culture is conceded to be one aim of 
education. Culture is a devotion to the best in 
all phases of living; it is love of the ideal, zeal 



THE AIMS OF EDUCATION 19 

in quest of the highest elements and finest fruits 
of civilization, liberality of mind, sympathy with 
all things that contribute to the charm of gentle, 
gracious, affable demeanor among men. It is 
that magnanimous and sympathetic attitude 
towards one's fellowmen that makes one prefer to 
direct them rather than to govern them. As 
applied to the process of education, culture differ- 
entiates between the liberal education and the 
strictly professional or technical. Culture is con- 
cerned more in the man than the workman, the 
chemist, or the physician. It is interested more 
in being than in doing, in the ability to appreciate 
excellence anywhere and everywhere, and in the 
training that enables a man to discriminate in his 
choice of the best. Culture denotes a broad sym- 
pathy that extends beyond the boundaries of state, 
nation, or race. As Dr. Eliot says : * * The worthy 
fruit of academic culture is an open mind, trained 
to careful thinking, instructed in the method of 
philosophic investigation, acquainted in a general 
way with the accumulated thought of past genera- 
tions, and penetrated with humility.' ' 

Service. — Another recognized aim of education JoicXtions 
is service. The notion that the aim of education is JjJ^JS^ 1011 
to give an individual such an advantage over his 
fellowmen that he can avoid work and have them 
to labor for him is a vicious misconception of the 
purpose of education. Some parents, solicitous 
for their children's welfare, and ambitious for 
their preferment, cultivate in them mischievous 
ideas concerning the import of education. The 
selfish incentive that regards only the boy's pro- 



20 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The socially 
efficient man 
and his 
ideals of 

education. 



motion in his education is too narrow, and it often 
results in disappointment to the parent and the 
discomfiture of the boy. Prisons and almshouses 
are tenanted by those whose misconception of life 
and disregard for the rights of others had caused 
them to lead profitless lives, under the delusion 
that education grants special privileges and 
exemptions, and enables the educated to "live by 
their wits" at the expense of others. 

The chief reason that a man should acquire 
knowledge is not that he only, but that all others, 
may be better for its acquisition. The true incen- 
tive to attain skill, culture, and character is that 
society, as a whole, may be benefited by their 
attainment. 

A far nobler conception of education is that it 
is a preparation for service, for social efficiency. 
A socially efficient man is he who can earn his own 
living, who does not interfere with others in earn- 
ing theirs, and is able to do his part in promoting 
the progress of his generation. To earn a living 
is to pay for it ; not to receive it of society without 
equivalent return. One should be able and willing 
to render service equal in value to the compensa- 
tion demanded. A socially efficient man is in no 
respect a parasite. His vocation is devoid of any 
trace of mendicancy. "Full value returned" is 
the motto of him who would feel that exaltation 
of spirit that can come only to him who knows he 
is worth what he gets, and that the world is more 
his debtor than his creditor. 

The socially efficient man must engage in some 
employment that is either directly productive or 



THE AIMS OF EDUCATION 21 

ultimately contributory to the productivity of 
others. His vocation must be creative of values. 

There is a variety of occupations and industries opportum- 
m which there is opportunity tor rendering useful service are 
service. The farmer, the ranchman, and the fish- 
erman, furnish products for food; the mechanic, 
the carpenter, and the manufacturer supply the 
necessities and the comforts of the family; the 
physician protects the public from the ravages 
of disease, the minister directs to higher motives 
of life, the teacher contributes to public intelli- 
gence^ — all these either directly or indirectly min- 
ister to the productivity of the workmen in other 
vocations and occupations. 

Whoever by his invention or discovery makes JJgJJf" 1 * 
it easier for man to be healthier or happier, who *» »*** 
increases the capacity for physical or mental S ^JJ^ 
effort, who facilitates the extraction of natural ana 
riches from the soil, the sea, the forest, or the 
mine, or who finds a more effective means of con- 
verting these products into articles of usefulness 
is socially efficient. Whoever paints a picture that 
inspires to loftier ideals or purer thought, who 
carves a statue that elevates the tone of living, 
justifies his own existence. Whoever writes a 
poem or a book, or delivers an oration that ani- 
mates the weak, encourages the despondent, or 
reclaims the wayward, is a benefactor. 

How much of man's happiness, as well as his 
productivity, is indebted to Janssen for the 
microscope, to Pasteur for the discovery of the 
cause and cure of hydophobia, to Jenner for the 
vaccination against smallpox ! How much suffer- 



22 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



A practical 
Illustration 
of efficient 
service to 
mankind. 



ing has been averted by the use of anaesthetics as 
first applied by Dr. Crawford Long ! 

A great field is always open to the efficient man 
who seeks new means of converting crude products 
into articles of usefulness. Among numerous 
examples the history of the products of cotton 
seed is a good illustration. Long after cotton 
became an article of commerce, the seed was 
thought valueless. For it there was neither de- 
mand nor market. Ginners stipulated that their 
patrons must remove their cotton seed. Somebody 
discovered that the seed was a good fertilizer, then 
it was found an excellent food for cattle, after- 
wards the oil of the seed was extracted and 
refined. The perfect edibility of the oil and its 
by-products makes them suitable for all purposes 
for which animal fats are used. Two of these by- 
products, oleomargarine and lard compound, are 
excellent substitutes for butter and lard, respect- 
ively. Various kinds of soap and many toilet 
articles are derivatives of the once valueless cot- 
ton seed, and through intelligent experimentation, 
what was once an unmarketable product has 
become a staple article of commerce. 



CHAPTER III 

EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES 

Whatever influences one in such a way as to 
change his character or his manner of life in any- 
particular, is a means of education. It is quite 
evident that numerous influences operate to form 
the character of every individual. It is doubtful ah experi. 
if any experience, especially during the plastic association* 
period of an individual, is without its effect in Ideational 
some degree upon his life, his character, ideals, affencies - 
modes of thought, standards of conduct, or some 
other process or feature entering into the warp 
and woof of the "sum total" of the man. Daily 
associations, comradeship — the neighbor's boys — 
are potent educational agencies. Sometimes the 
failure of an enterprise is caused by some circum- 
stance which in itself is insignificant — a broken 
rail, a missent letter, a delayed telegram, tardi- 
ness in keeping an appointment. The fortune of 
battle has often been turned by some apparently 
trivial incident. 

Many a boy has had his slumbering spirit 
awakened by an oration or a sermon, and through 
its influence caused to begin a new career and a 
more significant life. The silent influence of a SSSSwwi 
picture placed where it could be seen by a child 
from day to day has often produced a transfor- 
mation in its disposition. 



24 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

Society recognizes as educational agencies 
monuments which in the language of the sculptor 
commemorate achievements of statecraft or deeds 
of heroism. Hence they are placed in public parks 
and other frequented places not so much for the 
purpose of honoring the dead as for their bene- 
ficial effect on the living. 

Newspapers, magazines, public libraries, lec- 
tures, chautauquas, lyceum courses, all forms of 
social and commercial intercourse, are now re- 
garded as important factors in education. 

All forms of occupation, all places of business 
afford instruction, supply knowledge, experience, 
and training. Mercantile establishments furnish 
abundant opportunity for learning human nature 
of engendering habits of courtesy, diplomacy, self 
restraint, and punctuality. All are phases of edu- 
cation. 

Lodges, clubs, orders, and societies of various 
kinds are means of intellectual and moral uplift. 
Sports, games, and plays, by affording relaxation 
and invigoration, cultivation of the social instincts, 
by teaching the necessity of quick decision and 
action, and above all, co-operation, are educational 
factors, the importance of which is just beginning 
to receive recognition. 
The chief The chief agencies in education, as stated by 

educational . . 

agencies. Prof. H. H. Home m the opening sentence of his 

work on " Philosophy of Education", are the 
home, the school, the vocation, the state, and the 
church. 

The Home. — Of these agencies the home is first 
in time. Among primitive people, and in new and 



EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES 



25 



sparsely settled communities, the home is the only 
educational agency, as well as the only industrial 
workshop. The home is the basis of civilization. 
The family is the simplest social structure. It is *ft*gg 
the most important as well as the most ancient of £ oa ivmza - 
human institutions. All other institutions are 
products of the family. Whatever strikes at the 
home attacks civilization. Dependence must be 
placed chiefly upon the home for the transmission 
of the spiritual inheritance of the race, its ideals, 
its standards of conduct, its conceptions of religion 
and of the significance of life and its obligations. 
It is in the home that the child learns to obey, to 
respect authority, and to recognize the rights of 
others. If the child fails to acquire in the home 
the human graces, he has little chance of acquir- 
ing them from other institutions. 

It is in the home that the child must acquire g^gST 
materials for the foundation upon which all other g^ggf* 
institutions must build the man. The strength J^ c °J loa 
of the superstructure is dependent upon the solid- 
ity of the foundation. 

Civilization must trust to home training for 
stereotyping habits and for weaving the tissues 
of character. The importance of the home in edu- 
cation can be realized, when we reflect that the 
child passes there the plastic period of his life. 
The child that leaves home with misconceptions of 
life, with perverted mental vision, seldom recov- 
ers from his misfortune. Moral obliquity is very 5^°£T ce 
often traceable to defective home training. In training, 
after life one may fancy that he has outgrown the 
effects of home dereliction, but in time of danger, 



The child 
can "bo 



26 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

temptation, or unusual and unexpected stresses, 
the lack of wise direction during childhood is made 
manifest. The young man who takes from his 
home no hallowed memories, no convictions, no 
indomitable purpose, is poorly equipped for life, 
irrespective of his accomplishments in school or 
college. 

In his " Principles of Education", Prof. Bolton 
says : ' ' The ideals which dominate life and char- 
acter, and give them significance, owe more to 
home influences than to all others combined. ,, 

The teacher could profit by the study of the 
ffthe Jo«2 child at home. It is there his nature can best be 
understood. The naturalist should go to the 
jungle, and not to the zoological garden, the 
botanist to the hill and the meadow, and not to 
the greenhouse, for the best information. 

In the home the child is himself. The home is 
not a place where the child mostly listens, but 
where all the senses are alert and clamorous for 
expression. There, all the work is spontaneous. 
In the home there is a direct motive behind every 
activity. There, the child is eager to act, and he 
acts naturally, in his own way, and in his own 
time. He is ready to help his brother with his 
task, and is not afraid of reprimand for doing it. 
There he works without concern as to marks, 
grades, credits, or symbols of any kind on a peri- 
odical report card. He does things because of his 
gratification in acquiring skill in their accomplish- 
ment. Artificiality in home processes is altogether 
lacking. 

The family fireside is the council chamber of 



EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES 27 

civilization. In it is represented the alertness, the JSJSJSd 
confidence, the candor, and the optimism of child- fe y toe nome - 
hood, the patience, the affection, and the solicitude 
of parentage. In its archives are kept the tradi- 
tions and the aspirations of the race. In its dicta 
are found the fundamental doctrines of civiliza- 
tion. 

The home should provide such means of culture 
and inspiration as are afforded by the best in 
books and music, such recreation and amusement 
that the attraction would be towards, and not 
away from, the family assembly. The child should 
not be forced to the street for companionship, or 
to public places for entertainment. 

When the state assumes the responsibility of JJjJjJ^ 
offering opportunity for education to all citizens, 'i 1 ** 1 *^ 
of selecting the teacher, and of prescribing the education, 
course of study, there is danger that the home may 
relax its efforts and disclaim its responsibility. 
Such a possible catastrophe should be averted. 
There is now no considerable opposition any- 
where to the doctrine of the state's duty and re- 
sponsibility in the education of the young, but in 
any scheme of popular education the home should 
be regarded as an important factor. 

The School. — The primary purpose of the school 
is to educate the young. The general aims of edu- 
cation have been already discussed. The institu- 
tions and conditions that educate in an incidental 
manner may be called informal agencies, and Formal ana 
those organized or maintained expressly for edu- agSSa ai«. 
cational purposes may be called formal agencies. tia ^ ulslxed - 
In the former class may be placed the vocations, 



28 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The school 

must 

supplement 

informal 

education. 



The duty of 
the State. 



clubs, societies, associations, etc. The principal 
agency of the latter class is the school. 

Informal education is irregular, incidental, 
unsystematic. Formal education is organized, 
methodical and definite in its aims. It is the 
province of the school to provide proper environ- 
ment instead of depending upon chance or acci- 
dental experience, to co-ordinate all the best proc- 
esses of education, to apply principles rather than 
devices and, in the formation of its plans and its 
methods, to look to the future rather than to the 
immediate present. 

The school must provide that which the home 
and the other agencies are unable to furnish. 
Wherever there exists a deficiency, the school 
must supply the necessary supplementation. 
Neither the home nor the workshop is able in a 
complex civilization to meet the needs of the child 
and its development as adequately as it does in a 
less developed state of society. To satisfy these 
urgent needs a specially organized institution is 
indispensable, an institution whose grasp includes 
all the elements of education, and whose horizon 
comprehends all phases of society. 

The Vocation.— The fundamental principle of 
the vocation as an educational agency is the inter- 
dependence and necessary co-operation of all men 
in their several vocations. Skill is rendered pos- 
sible by division of labor, allowing a specialization 
in particular lines of endeavor, thus securing 
expert and efficient service of numerous kinds. 

The State. — The state as an educational agency 
protects man in the choice and use of his environ- 



EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES 29 

ments, in the advantages gained through his own 
experience, in guaranteeing him liberty in the 
practice of his vocation and in the enjoyment of 
the returns of his productivity. It is the province 
of the state to protect the home and the vocation, 
to organize and maintain schools, and to guarantee 
to the church unrestricted liberty in the exercise 
of its prerogatives. 

The Church. — The home deals primarily with 
the relations of father to son, brother to brother, 
child to mother ; the school primarily with the rela- 
tions of man to man; the church primarily with 
the relation of creature to Creator. The constant 
aim of the church is to bring man into a knowledge 
of his spiritual inheritance, to win him away from 
the sordid and unclean, and to fix his affections 
upon the devout and righteous. 

The basic ideas of the church are love and 
mercy. Its ideals are wholly unselfish. It seeks Cental's of 
to bring its standards of conduct and its concep- 25c£S££ 7 
tions of life to every one, regardless of station, 
condition, race or nationality. Its doctrines are 
founded upon the fatherhood of God and the 
brotherhood of man. To the processes of human 
reasoning by which man discovers the laws gov- 
erning the forces of nature, it adds faith, the be- 
lief in God and spiritual influences that are not 
comprehensible by the application of ordinary 
inductive and deductive processes. 

The church sends its missionary to all mankind. 
He goes without arms; without civil authority; 
without equipment ; with only a motive and a mes- 
sage. Where all the resources of science, litera- 



30 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Bemarkatile 
achieve, 
ments of the 
missionary. 



ture, and commerce fail, he succeeds. He pene- 
trates the fastnesses of ignorance and supersti- 
tion, and brings a simple yet mysterious message 
to people whose souls have been made fierce by 
centuries of heredity from savage ancestors, and 
transforms their character. In his wake schools 
spring up, home and family are created, and a 
barbarous race, cruel in all its instincts and habits, 
with crudest jargon for language, is civilized, is 
given a written language and a literature, and the 
capacity for its enjoyment. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE SCHOOL 

The school is the natural outgrowth of the prin- JfJ **^*"" 
eiple of division of labor. Primitive man discov- «ati<m 
ered early that economy and efficiency result from 
specialization. Just as it was found economical 
for one man in the community or the tribe to 
make shoes for all, and to receive for his work 
such commodities as he needed and the rest could 
supply, so was it found preferable for one to 
teach the children of all, while the rest supplied 
his wants. 

Thus teaching as a business originated in the 
same way as shoemaking and other trades and pro- 
fessions. Because the work of the unskilful and J£> e r ct " of 
unintelligent teacher causes a more widespread J^SSf nt . 
and permanent injury than that of the unskilful 
shoemaker or blacksmith, society as a whole — the 
state — is gradually assuming more and more the 
direction of education and the cost of its mainte- 
nance. One suffers no permanent injury from all 
fitting shoes. Only the individual that wears 
them feels the inconvenience of unshapely gar- 
ments; but the evil effects of poor teaching are 
felt by society, by state, and by posterity. 

For a long time social intercourse within the 
family, the tribe, or the community was the first 
means of education, and it is still one of the most 



32 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The school 
the neces- 
sary out- 
growth of 
complexity 
of society. 



The school 
has not 

always "been 
the leader. 



Progress 

always 

necessary 



important means. So long as society was quite 
simple, and there was little commerce or relation 
with remote people, education by this means was 
fairly satisfactory, but the increasing complexity 
of society rendered it necessary from time to time 
to provide more adequate means of formal educa- 
tion with special equipment and specially prepared 
teachers to direct it. The school has sought to 
keep pace with the progress of the race as ex- 
pressed in other institutions, in commerce, manu- 
factures, means of travel, and forms of govern- 
ment. It has not always led in this progress. 
Many of the reforms have been forced upon it. 
Teachers have often been compelled to yield to 
popular demand for revision of courses of study, 
changes in the plans and purposes for which they 
had not made sufficient preparation, and to which 
they were not enthusiastically committed. 

Advances in education have not always been 
as rapid as in other lines, yet there has been a 
constant and steady growth in the conceptions of 
what the school ought to do for the child. The 
chief aim of the school is to make a physically, 
mentally, and spiritually, strong individual, an effi- 
cient and capable workman, a patriotic and pro- 
gressive citizen. Since these qualities and char- 
acteristics have had widely different meanings in 
different generations, it has followed that ideals, 
means, and appliances of the school have varied 
from generation to generation, and even from year 
to year. What was fairly adequate in the eight- 
eenth century, is totally inadequate for the 
twentieth. 



THE SCHOOL 33 

The school was first concerned in those things 
which through carelessness were neglected, or 
from necessity ignored in the home. The training, 
instruction, and course of study at first had no 
reference whatever to domestic or business life. 
It has taken several hundred years to get away S? a "ei ent8 
from the doctrine of the ancients that to introduce educa "2? 

as a privl- 

into the school — into education — any matter that le8re £ r 
could be used in the home, the workshop, the farm Jj*™ ot 
or the market, belittled education and rendered it 
common. The old idea was that education is a 
privilege, and not a right ; that it is for the leisure 
class, and not for the laboring class ; for the patri- 
cian, and not the plebeian. It was asserted that 
the useful and the practical, those things that per- 
tain to the vocation, except that of the so-called 
learned professions, should be learned in the 
home, on the street, and in the apprentice shop, 
and not in the school. 

The school has changed in order to meet the 
tremendous social changes that have taken place 
within the memory of even the present generation. 

Modern education is for all; for the common Education 

. is now 

man as well as for the patrician, for the busy and re ? a IJ 9d f a * 
the lesiure man, the professional man and the aiiciasse« 
mechanic, the rich and the poor. 

The most important and far reaching change 
that characterizes the schools of the present time 
—the controlling and overshadowing change, is 
the industrial one. The applications of science 
resulting in numerous inventions for utilizing the 
forces of nature — wind, water, steam, electricity, 
chemical affinity, etc., the improved processes of 



34 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The greatest 
change of 
recent years 
is the 
industrial 
demands of 
education. 



Need of 
efficient 
men. 



Standards 
for 

measuring' 
the worth 
of the man. 



Revolution 
in all 

departments 
of life. 



manufacture, of preparation and conservation of 
food stuffs, the creation of new commodities, the 
utilization of by-products that were formerly- 
regarded as waste, the opening of world-wide 
markets, the rapid means of travel, communication 
and distribution of products — all have exerted a 
prodigious influence upon the ideals, means, and 
processes of the school, which has been made to 
feel that it should prepare the child to adapt itself 
to changed conditions. 

A broader standard for the measurement of 
man has resulted from these social changes. There 
is a crying need for efficient men in so many lines 
of endeavor, for skilled workmen in so many 
occupations, that the school has been required to 
fashion its instruction and alter its methods to 
comply with these demands. 

The measurement of man's worth is determined 
by a changed standard. The question, "What 
does he know?" has been changed to "What does 
he know, what can he do, and what kind of man is 
he?" The world demands knowledge, skill, and 
character ; knowledge of useful things, skill in the 
performance of important acts, character that 
shows itself in influence, habits and ideals. At no 
other time in the history of man has there been 
so great a premium on versatile and accurate 
knowledge, efficient and rapid service, and charac- 
ter that is dependable and reliable. 

Professor Dewey has said, "One can hardly 
believe that there has been a revolution in all his- 
tory so rapid, so extensive, so complete. • * * 
Even our moral and religious ideas and interests, 



THE SCHOOL 35 

the most conservative, because the deepest-lying 
things in our nature, are profoundly affected." 

Not only what may affect the child in after life, 
but what affects him while in the school, has 
received the best attention of scientists. His 
comfort, his health, and his happiness, have 
received painstaking consideration. The ques- JJJJJJg 1 
tions of school architecture, heating, ventilation, introduced 
lighting, seating, and sanitation have been studied curriculum, 
by specialists. Questions of causes of disease, 
contagion, and infection have been settled in the 
laboratory of the bacteriologist, and the conclu- 
sions there reached made public property for the 
benefit of the child. 

Some changes in school standards have resulted 
in adding to the curriculum manual training, 
domestic science, the study of plants, birds, ani- 
mals, insects, soils, with apparatus for play 
grounds, laboratories, workshops, and school gar- 
dens, bringing a new interest to school life and a 
fuller meaning to elementary education. 

Physical education has displaced "calisthen- gjjjggj* 1 
ics", and has been made to apply to the whole recognized 
nurture of the child, including his games, his dress, Butoject. 
his food, and the intelligent use of the bathroom 
and the toothbrush. 



CHAPTER V 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SCHOOL 



Important 
to have 
school site 
large 
enough. 



Forethought 
In selecting 
site avoids 
future 
expense. 



Broader views of life, in its manifold activities, 
have wrought a change in the physical conditions 
of the school. More attention is being given to 
sites, grounds, buildings, furniture, apparatus, 
hygiene, and sanitation. 

The Site. — The selection of a school site is a 
matter of importance. The mistake has been fre- 
quently made of providing too small a site, result- 
ing in increased cost when enlargement became 
necessary. In 1913, a city of Texas paid $250,000 
for a high school site that ten years before could 
have been bought for $10,000. In 1911, the ques- 
tion as to whether the University of Nebraska 
should abandon its site in the City of Lincoln, and 
remove to a tract of land two miles away from the 
city, or should enlarge its present campus by the 
purchase of adjoining property, was left to popu- 
lar vote. The decision was to acquire additional 
grounds in the city. The University then pur- 
chased, at a cost of $300,000 to the state, six blocks 
of city property that could have been secured 
when the University was founded for $3,000 to 
$6,000. Eural communities make similar mis- 
takes, building the schools on plots of ground 
entirely too small for school purposes, failing to 
provide facilities for playground activities. 



a school 
site. 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SCHOOL 37 

In selecting a site, several features should be ft?** 1 " 6 * 
considered. The school should be located on high S£sS2t& 
ground that is naturally dry and easily drained. 
It should be away from objectionable noises of the 
street, the shop, or manufactory, and away from 
unsanitary surroundings. In cities the site should 
be ample for playgrounds, walks, flowers, shrub- 
bery, and, when at all possible, a school garden. 
In rural communities at least one acre, and pref- 
erably four or five acres, should be secured. For 
a small school of not more than twenty to thirty 
pupils, the minimum should be half an acre, but 
provision should be made for possible increase in 
the number of pupils ; hence at least an acre for a 
rural school should be insisted upon. It is a great 
mistake to abridge the freedom of the children 
during their hours of recreation on a small and 
undeveloped plot of ground. 

The Grounds. — The grounds for any school, in gjgjfik 
addition to abundant room for physical activities, JJSSSf 
should have also enough reserved for purely orna- 
mental purposes. That part devoted to games 
should be made available for the purpose. It 
should be well graded, made smooth; all stumps, 
and stones removed, and necessary appliances for 
games of ball, tennis, etc., provided. Play is now 
conceded to be one of the important agencies in 
education. All the grounds should be made attrac- 
tive. Small expenditure of money for material 
and for the direction of the pupils in cultivation 
is most wisely spent. Valuable information con- 
cerning plant life is thus given, and in no other 
way may such profitable work be done in cultivat- 



38 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Grounds 

should 

not be 

abandoned 

during 1 

vacation. 



Community 
pride in 
in site 
and 
grounds. 



Definite 
plans for 
'building's 
advisable. 



ing the aesthetic at so little outlay of time and 
money. What is learned at school about beauti- 
fication of premises will soon be reflected in the 
homes of the children, and if the results are not 
immediately evident, the next generation will reap 
the reward. 

The short term of the rural school, the utter 
abandonment of the property when the buildings 
and grounds are used only for the purposes of 
instruction, and the frequent changes of teachers 
and school boards, operate harmfully against 
improvement and preservation of the grounds and 
buildings. 

The teacher, though his stay in a neighborhood 
be short, can do an important work in awakening 
in the community a pride in the school property, 
and an interest sufficient to secure the employment 
of some one as keeper of the premises during vaca- 
tion. 

In the country a mistake is frequently made in 
locating the school too remote from a dwelling. 
Such a location invites trespass and vandalism. 

A well aroused community pride in the school 
premises would have a wholesome effect in doing 
away with the unglazed, unpainted house, amid 
rough, uneven, treeless, barren, cheerless grounds, 
cramped in an isolated corner of the roadside, 
"like a ragged beggar sunning.' ' 

The Buildings. — The present ideal school build- 
ing is simple and expressive of the serious but 
hopeful purpose for which it exists. Sometimes 
good taste is violated both in buildings and 
grounds by over-ornamentation from the use of 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SCHOOL 39 

too elaborate design, by lack of harmony in color 
schemes. The fee paid a competent architect to JJgJ^u, 
plan the school building is money well invested. JJJKftJJm 
Several universities and normal schools have institution*, 
given special attention to problems relating to the 
construction and equipment of school buildings, 
and they are glad to render to communities gratu- 
itous service on request. 

The Department of Education in each of several Sepwrtmeat* 
states is rendering valuable service to the state in ?i^sk ation 
furnishing without charge plans and specifications » lans - 
applicable to any desired expenditure. 

Urban communities have within the last quarter 
of a century made great improvement in their 
school buildings. Quite frequently now the school 
house is the most attractive and pretentious build- 
ing in the town. Eural communities are, as a rule, 
still behind in this particular ; but in some sections, 
however, an awakening interest is manifest, the 
results of intelligent interest and effort, becoming 
more and more patent. In many places yet, how- 
ever, the type of the "old red school house' ' with 
"four walls, a roof, and a floor", still abides. 

Expert thought has been directed to the size, fg*^ 
shape and general plan of the school-room. It is *°™ for 

*- ° , t • ' • ■ class room*. 

commonly agreed that in cities, where floor space 
is expensive, a room 28 by 32 feet is a con- 
venient and appropriate size, and that the mini- 
mum height (from floor to ceiling) is 13 feet for 
the first story and 12 feet for the second. Such a 
room would afford seating space for fifty pupils, 
with allowance for necessary vacant spaces, and JSSSiStt* 
furnish 200 cubic feet of air for each pupil, an JSSSSa. 



kind. 



40 PRINCIPLES AND PEOCESSES 

amount which is considered sufficient under nor- 
mal conditions of ventilation. 

Better acoustic properties are secured by hav- 
ing a rectangular room, whose sides are in the 
ratio of 5 to 6. Cramped quarters either on the 
playground or in the school-room, are detrimental 
to health, good order, and good work. "While it is 
needless to advise against making the school-room 
too large, enough space is all that is desirable, 
especially in cold weather, as the larger the room, 
the less easily it is heated, 
position of Blackboards should be placed on all wall space 

aadproper in the school-room unoccupied by doors and win- 
dows. Natural slate is the best kind of board 
and, considered as to durability, the cheapest in 
the end. But there are some excellent substitutes 
for the natural slate. A good article of what is 
known as slated cloth, if properly fastened to a 
perfectly smooth wall, makes a fine writing sur- 
face for several terms. Blackboards should be 
3^2 to 4 feet in width. For pupils in the primary 
grades it should be placed 2 feet or 2y 2 feet from 
the floor; for pupils in the high school 3 feet to 
3y 2 feet from the floor. The boards should at all 
times present a smooth surface, well cemented at 
joints, and of uniform color. Boards other than 
natural slate should be repaired, repainted, or 
removed promptly when they become rough or 
discolored. Black is in strongest contrast to the 
crayon work, and is, therefore, preferable, 
although dark green is preferred by some ; its rest- 
ful effect on the eyes, in their opinion, more than 
offsetting the disadvantage of its color. Chalk 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SCHOOL 41 

troughs should be placed just beneath the boards, 
and should have a hinged wire covering, so that 
students using the boards do not disturb the accu- 
mulated dust. 

Light.— All authorities agree that the arrange- S^Srt" 
ment of the seats should bring the light from the gJUKxm. 
left side and the rear. This arrangement avoids 
the shadow of the hand, as the pupil sits with the 
right side to the desk. The more completely the 
left side of the room is filled with glass, the bet- 
ter, the windows extending from within three feet 
of the floor to the top of the room. The amount 
of light admitted into the room should be reg- 
ulated by shades of a greenish tint. The shades 
should be adjustable, that is, so they may be low- 
ered from the top or raised from the bottom. 
Shades that can be raised only from the bottom 
render it difficult to lower the upper sash of the 
window for ventilation. 

Furniture.— The best furniture is the single ad- £ES t °£ e 
adjustable desk and chair. Single desks are to be j^g^. 
preferred to double desks for both hygienic a-nd 
disciplinary reasons. Both the desk and the chair 
should be adjusted to suit the individual child. 
When adjustable furniture is used, the adjustment 
should be made properly. Definite directions are 
usually furnished by the manufacturer. 

In case adjustable furniture is not provided, 
three sizes of desks should be used, those for the 
smaller children being placed in front. 

Every school building should be provided with 
cloak-rooms, and care should be taken that they 
are well lighted and ventilated. Each child should 



42 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Problems 
of heating 
and 
ventilation. 



Correct 
temperature 
for the 
schoolroom. 



The 

jacketed 
stove. 



have a separate locker, with shelves for lunch bas- 
kets, rubbers, and other objects. 

Heating and Ventilation. — One of the most un- 
important problems of the school is that of heat- 
ing and ventilation. Until recent years, compara- 
tively little attention was paid to the problem, 
especially as it relates to school houses. Lately, 
however, it has engaged expert attention and in- 
vestigation. Now, scarcely any municipality per- 
mits the construction of a school building or other 
public meeting place without compliance with 
the specifications of some one of several modern 
systems. 

Proper ventilation requires that fresh air be 
brought in from without, heated to the proper tem- 
perature (64 deg. to 70 deg. Fahrenheit), and dis- 
tributed throughout the room, and the vitiated air 
removed. There must be separate vents both for 
fresh air and foul air in each room. There are 
several adequate systems now in use in different 
cities of the country, but their discussion would 
require so much technical detail that it is not here 
attempted. 

One of the simplest systems, now gaining in 
popularity on account of its applicability to small 
schools, is that of the " jacketed stove". The stove 
is enclosed with an iron "jacket" six feet high, 
extending from the floor, and leaving a distance of 
two feet between the jacket and the stove. A con- 
duit or vent for fresh air leads from the outside 
to a point beneath the stove, admitting fresh air 
which, being heated, rises to the ceiling and thence 
distributes itself throughout the room. On the 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SCHOOL 43 

opposite side of the room is a ventilating duct, 
connecting with the flue from the stove, through 
which the vitiated air is discharged. 



CHAPTER VI 



THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL 



Specific 
aim of 
education. 



Knowledge. 



Valuable 
knowledge. 



The school is established primarily for the 
child. Its chief function is the education of the 
young. All the specific aims of education may be 
roughly classified under the three heads of phyi- 
cal, intellectual, and spiritual education. Again, 
the main object of intellectual education (as stated 
in a preceding chapter may be said to consist of 
acquiring knowledge, power, and skill. 

These aims exert a determining influence upon 
the organization of courses of study, methods of 
instruction, and modes of government. 

Acquisition of Knowledge. — Knowledge, it 
should be remembered, does not consist of the 
mere accumulation of masses of unrelated facts, 
for many facts are, in themselves, utterly worth- 
less. Knowledge, so far as it constitutes one of 
the purposes of instruction, consists of vital facts 
and experiences connected by logical relations, so 
classified, arranged and organized that they 
become means for the acquisition of additional 
knowledge, or of direction in the discharge of du- 
ties and responsibilities. 

Not all knowledge, once acquired, is permanent- 
ly retained, at least in a form that is serviceable. 
Much that we learn is unavoidably forgotten. 
Therefore, if knowledge were the chief goal of 



THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL 45 

instruction, much of the time consumed in its 
acquisition is wasted. But if, in the acquisition of 
knowledge, one has developed a love for the right 
kind of facts, and has learned to organize these 
into forms rendering them serviceable to the life 
of the individual and to society, the time is not 
wasted. 

Gaining Power. — Knowledge may be the recol- power, 
lection of how a certain problem or how a certain 
class of problems was solved, but the ability to 
solve new and unusual problems, as they present 
themselves, implies training and discipline. This 
is power. 

The same problem, unchanged and unmodified, 
seldom presents itself twice in a life-time, there- 
fore, one who would depend upon memory, that is 
upon facts, alone, would often meet confusion and 
defeat. 

Attainment of Skill. — Skill implies intelligent sua. 
practice. It involves experience obtained under 
competent and watchful direction, training under 
expert supervision. Skill means accuracy, rapid- 
ity, and proficiency. 

Character. — The supreme end of all instruction 2J^J2f er 
is character. In its broadest sense, character test of 
includes knowledge, power and skill, but it is more of the 
concerned in what the child is trained to be than 
what it is taught to know or drilled to do. Charac- 
ter includes habit, but it relies for its fuller mean- 
ing upon such qualities as probity, integrity, pur- 
ity, and incorruptibility. Character is the final 
test of the worth of the processes of the school. 
It is the court of last resort by which the claims 



46 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



of the school upon popular approval must be 
decided. 

The fact that many who have passed regularly- 
through the grades of the common school, the high 
school, and have finally received a degree from 
the university, have failed when submitted to the 
supreme test, has been cited as proof that our 
schools are not faithful to their trust. Indict- 
ments of modern education are common. A dis- 
tinguished educator a few years ago said, "We 
all know that the children of the last two decades 
have not been educated. With all our training, 
we have trained nobody. With all our instructing 
we have instructed nobody". 

Now, indictments against customs, and institu- 
tions are nearly always purposely exaggerated, 
for the reason that public attention is attracted by 
harsh and startling expressions. Bobbed of 
extravagance, and reduced to commonplace lan- 
guage, the arraignment would mean that the effi- 
ciency of our schools has not of late years justified 
the amount spent upon them. It must be admitted 
that many people feel that the schools of the pres- 
ent time are failing to meet the demands upon 
them; that in all their progress they have not 
increased in efficiency as rapidly as other institu- 
tions; and that the processes of modern educa- 
tion, compared with new methods of travel, manu- 
facture, practice of medicine, printing, photog- 
raphy, and many other vocations, fail to measure 
up to the average standard of improvement. 

Hardly any student of education would 
seriously assert that the schools of to-day are less 



THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL 47 

efficient than those of the past. What is meant, 
then, by these complaints is that our schools have 
grown relatively less efficient, when the increased j5tS© ieilcy 
demands of the present time are taken into con- gfjjgj 
sideration. The present system of education relative, 
would have met the demands of any previous 
decade better than the system of that decade met 
them, but their efficiency has not increased in pro- 
portion to the increase of their responsibility. 
In considering this question, it should be noted **e scnooz 

° - 1 ' now does 

that much of the work heretofore performed by much that 

. x formerly 

other institutions has been unloaded upon the was 

_. undertaken 

schools. Parental authority is admitted by all to t>y informal 
have relaxed. The home has well nigh trans- 
ferred its responsibility for the entire education 
of the child to the school. The apprentice shop is 
closed. Various specialized types of education, 
the vocational and the industrial, with their new 
problems, have but recently presented themselves. 
Congested centers of population have developed 
new educational needs, as playgrounds, gymnas- 
iums, and school gardens. 

Of all institutions upon which the race is depen- 
dent for education — either formal or informal — 
it is the school that must undertake what the 
others leave undone; must attempt what the 
others are either unwilling or unable to perform. 
In this time of radical social and commercial 
changes, and of intense industrialism, when 
scarcely a week passes that some process or some 
instrumentality in manufacture does not become 
antiquated and ideals of living obsolete, the real 
advances made by the school, in its attempt to 



48 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Education 
does not 
terminate 
with the 
child. 



The social 

center 

movement. 



maintain its stability amid the tempests, and to 
save the best from the wreckage, are slow to be 
recognized and acknowledged. 

Earnest students of education are now agreed 
that the responsibility of the school to society or 
the state does not terminate with the child. The 
changes in social and economic conditions, varying 
almost with each new moon, find the young man 
who has left school at twenty-one, fairly well pre- 
pared for the demands of that time, unprepared 
for the conditions that confront him at thirty-five. 
It is true that social intercourse, the daily press, 
the public library, the court room, the pulpit, and 
other informal educational agencies contribute 
much to the enlightenment of the public, but these 
institutions are not dependable for the continuous 
education of the individual. 

A physician whose patronage had nearly de- 
serted him, in consequence of his professional 
inertia, was asked why he did not attend occa- 
sionally some medical school, in order to keep 
abreast of the times, when he replied: "Why, I 
haven't 'practiced up* what I learned in college 
yet." This doctor has not discovered that many 
of the theories and remedies that he learned in 
college have long since been abandoned by well 
informed physicians, and are no longer "prac- 
ticed" at all. It is now universally recognized 
that the lawyer, the physician, the teacher, or 
other professional man, must continue his studies 
as long as he practices. 

Continuous Education. — There is a widespread 
demand that the school assume the responsibility 



THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL 49 

of continuous education of the individuals of all 
classes and all ages. This . demand cannot be 
ignored. The task involves the affiliation, corre- 
lation and direction of all informal educational 
agencies of the community. It must bring 
together for mutual helpfulness individuals of all 
ages, creeds, and vocations, and secure the 
organized and sympathetic co-operation of all 
forces of the community. This new movement is 
already accomplishing much good in many places. 
It makes the school house a social center. 

Socially and religiously, men divide themselves The school 
into groups. In doing this they are seeking social the logical 
intercourse and co-operation. The church adds the social 
social opportunities to its spiritual work, but the 
church house of one sect can not be used as a meet- 
ing place for the community. Denominational 
lines are more or less closely drawn, and the 
church building is not the property of the com- 
munity. The same may be said of the meeting 
places of the lodges, clubs, societies, and frater- 
nities. Their rooms do not belong to the general 
public, and their aims do not appeal alike to all 
the people. The school draws no lines that ex- 
clude. The building is the property of the com- 
munity, and is, therefore, the logical meeting place 
of all the people engaged in a common purpose. 

The extension work now prosecuted by many of The 
the institutions of higher education is an effort work, 
to bring the advantages of education, or at least 
its modern ideals to the people at large, to effect 
a mutual understanding for the benefit, both of 
the people and 'the institution. The faculties of 



50 PEINCIPLES AND PEOCESSES 

educational institutions need to understand the 
conditions in the country, the point of view of 
their supporters, the needs of their constituencies, 
so that the aims of the institution may be better 
adjusted to the solution of the problems, both 
social and educational, as they are found by actual 
contact with the people. 

What is expedient for the university in its rela- 
tion to the people of the state is profitable to the 
school in its relation to the citizens of the com- 
munity. A full discussion of the different phases 
of the social center can not be here undertaken, 
but some of its purposes and its opportunities 
should have brief mention. 

S-Teratton ^ * s De li eve( l by many that the movement to 
necewary. bring into closer relations for purposes of uni- 
versal improvement all classes of citizens can be 
made to exert a tremendous influence upon general 
and continuous education. The lawyers have their 
bar associations, physicians their clinics, teachers 
their institutes, farmers their congresses, bankers, 
merchants — all vocations — have regular confer- 
ences, each organized and conducted for the edu- 
cation of a particular class. The topics of dis- 
cussion in these conventions are largely special 
and technical. The valuable work done in this 
manner needs the supplementation of a general 
conference in each community where the subjects 
of discussion appeal to all classes. Periodical 
conferences unify all community interests, beget 
a better understanding among the teachers, par- 
ents, business and professional men, cultivate 
community pride, lead to the construction of bet- 



THE FUNCTION'S OF THE SCHOOL 51 

ter school buildings, better dwellings, and better 
roads, provide wholesome entertainment in rural 
districts, and make the school house serviceable 
during the entire year. 

It provides a meeting place for the old and the JJtnT orle 
young, where questions of vital and common inter- soolal «•»*•*> 
est are studied with definite purpose — principles 
of hygiene, sanitation, music, art, literature, agri- 
culture, horticulture — anything and everything 
that pertains to education. It brings the school, 
its course of study, and its processes of education 
into closer relations with the home and all the 
other interests of the community, and secures har- 
monious action from discordant elements. 

In this community work the teacher must be f r ° e ^Stiy es 
capable of planning, directing, and executing, but if^ nt 
he must call to his assistance every interest and JJJJJJJ^ 
activity in the community. Beyond question the "££££„. 
free, open and frequent discussion of community 
problems is the quickest way to secure their solu- 
tion, and the surest way to enlist the interest of 
the entire citizenship. By no other means can a 
better understanding of community needs be 
obtained. Communities are backward in provid- 
ing educational facilities because the necessity for 
their improvement has not been demonstrated. 
Teachers and " educational missionaries" often 
blunder grieviously in their efforts to " arouse 
educational interest." It is not in good taste to 
accuse the parent of indifference to the welfare 
of the child because (in the language of the ac- 
cuser) he gives more attention to methods of 
improving the breed of the hogs than to the proc- 



52 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Parents 
are not 
indifferent 
to the 
welfare 
of their 
children. 



esses of cultivating the mind of the child. He 
invests in the hog because he has found that the 
investment pays. Convince him that investment 
in the school makes his child happier, wiser, and 
better, give him a practical demonstration that he 
can comprehend, and his purse is opened unstint- 
ingly. The average man, if he is niggardly in 
responding to the calls of the school, is so because 
of his distrust of it. He is not heedless of the 
future of the child; his apparent lack of interest 
is but the expression of his lack of confidence. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE COURSE OF STUDY 

The real purpose of a course of study, its scope, 
and its content, are questions of more than ordi- 
nary moment. There are few other matters in 
which the teacher may so seriously blunder. Many 
mistakes made by the teacher may right them- 
selves in process of time, but a blunder in planning 
the work by which he aims to build the character 
of the pupil is well nigh irreparable. 

Every school should have a definite course of Definite 
study, leading to a determinate goal, easily com- study 
prehended by the teacher and the pupil. Vague, ° 
hazy notions are always harmful. 

It is necessary that in every school, whether 
the elementary school or the university, there be 
a competent authority to direct the curriculum, to S^oSt 11 * 
understand it in all its details, to know how to cor- JJSSttto 
relate its various parts, to co-ordinate each grade curriculum, 
to those above and below, each class to the pre- 
ceding and succeeding classes, or each department 
to all other departments, to guard the interest 
of the pupil, and to see that a "balanced mental 
ration" is provided. Tirade 

The teacher of any grade should have intimate Jwdhave 
acquaintance with the work of all the other £SSfflg* 
grades ; his own whereabouts in the entire proces- j£2i? of 
sion should be a matter of unqualified certainty. sJ no e oL ira 



54 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The 

curriculum 
should he 
changed 
only for 
good cause. 



Factory 
methods 
not applic- 
able to the 
school. 



Piece work. 



The teacher of English in the high school or the 
college should be familiar with the scope of work 
done in mathematics. The department of chemis- 
try ought not to be ignorant of the efforts of the 
department of Latin, or out of sympathy with its 
ideals. 

A course of study, once constructed, should not 
be changed by the whims and caprices of the 
teacher. Every course of study is as progressive 
as the civilization of the race, but modification of 
a rational course should be permitted only when 
alterations are in the line of progress. The injec- 
tion of foreign matter, accidentally picked up by 
the teacher while attending a summer school, fre- 
quently mars the symmetry of a course, merely to 
gratify the vanity of a teacher who wishes to 
"practice up" what he has learned. 

Still, factory methods are not applicable to the 
school. In factories, each operator is concerned 
only in his part of the work. Often, the crafts- 
man, the most skilful in the performance of his 
specific task, the most artistic in finishing his piece 
of the machine, whose work makes the fewest mis- 
fits, and who has the fewest "discards", does not 
know to what purpose his piece is to be used. A 
few mechanics follow their pieces until they be- 
come a part of the complete machine, see them in 
their final setting, understand their relations to 
other pieces, and comprehend the mechanism as a 
whole. From this few are chosen managers, 
directors, and superintendents. 

But in the factory the workman, no matter how 
skilful or intelligent, is not allowed to deviate 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 55 

from the pattern assigned him. This pattern 
must be produced in minutest detail. Any change 
in the part from the pattern renders it unfit. Any 
change or improvement in the pattern requires 
corresponding changes in the pattern for all other 
parts, leading to the construction of a new type 
of machine. The intelligent workman, who looks 
beyond his piece, may suggest complete modifica- 
tion of the entire machine. When he does this, 
he is no longer a "piece man". The piece man 
is narrow in his sphere of work. His operations 
are mechanical. He is fettered, muzzled, sup- 
pressed. 

The teacher should not be shackled by inflexible Tfce teacher 
restrictions, and restrained within the narrow liven 
confines of piece work. While conforming to for initia- y 
established plans and purposes of the course of tive ' 
study, he should not be deprived of the full play 
of his best energies and inspirations. The teacher 
in all positions should have a broad outlook and 
comprehensive insight into the whole school. 
Among pupils there are no two "pieces" alike, 
therefore, the teacher should be freed from the 
severe limitations imposed upon the artisan and, 
within reasonable limits, be allowed the free hand 
of the artist. As Dutton says, "The teacher must 
be quite unhampered, and the results he seeks 
must not be quantitative, but qualitative." 

In organizing a school system, adopting a »*nfferof 
course of study, selecting text books, grading the processes 
schools, classifying the pupils* determining the mechanica1, 
scope of work for each grade for the term and for 
the current month, there is always danger of mak- 



56 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Courses In 
the lower 
schools 
determined 
by the 
higher insti- 
tutions. 



Old view 
of liberal 
education. 



The 

doctrine of 
formal 
dicipllne. 



ing everything too mechanical, of making " piece 
men" of the teachers, of discouraging initiative, 
and suppressing individuality. The child is never 
a piece of a machine or a cog in a wheel. One of 
the justest criticisms of the school processes of 
today is that they are too mechanical— too mech- 
anical in method, in discipline, in instruction, in 
testing results, and in the promotion of pupils. 

The course of study in the common schools has 
always been a reflection of that of the higher insti- 
tutions. Up to within the latter half of the last 
century the trend of all higher education was 
toward the preparation for the learned profes- 
sions or for the pleasure and the polish of the 
leisure class. A liberal education was regarded 
as something appropriate to the free. The deriva- 
tion of the word liberal (liber, free) indicates what 
the conception of education used to be. It was 
intended for those who were free from the neces- 
sity of earning a livelihood; for men of leisure; 
for a class to whom time was not valuable. The 
course of study was made to include only what 
was deemed suitable for polite society, for the 
drawing-rooms of the aristocracy. 

Doctrine of Formal Discipline. — The course of 
study was also dominated by the doctrine of for- 
mal, or general, discipline. The prevalent belief 
was that the effects of training are general, that 
is, whatever is gained by one organ is transmitted 
to the other organs; that the cultivation of one 
faculty results in the cultivation of all the facul- 
ties. Those not subscribing to the doctrine in its 
most rigorous claims, who regarded the mind not 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 57 

as an entity, but as composed of separate and in- 
dependent faculties, maintained that whatever 
develops a faculty of the mind in a particular sit- 
uation makes that faculty more efficient in all 
situations ; that the chief function of education is 
to gain strength, upon the theory that this 
strength could then be applied in any direction. 
For example, that the power gained in mastering 
mathematical problems or in construing a foreign 
language furnishes power for the solution of 
problems in physics and chemistry, and even for 
the more concrete problems of the home, the farm, 
or the market place. 

The doctrine of general discipline, as advocated Jjjjjjjj 18 of 
for centuries, is being abandoned. Careful inves- J^ lpUne 
tigations and experiments by competent psychol- abandoned, 
ogists seem to have demonstrated beyond contro- 
versy that there is no general power of the mind. 

According to the doctrine of general discipline, 
the content of a course of study is of little impor- 
tance. It matters little whether the knowledge 
acquired is retained, but the effort put forth and 
the training received in its pursuit develops the 
perception, the memory, the imagination, etc. To 
this class of psychologists education means simp- 
ly power to think accurately, judge correctly, and 
reason logically. To them, facts, or knowledge of 
facts, are mere unimportant incidents, pebbles 
picked up in the real journey ; a hypothetical edu- 
cated man might be devoid of knowledge, having 
at his command the power to summon knowledge 
quickly whenever it is needed. 

Ultra views concerning general discipline, car- 



58 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



rying with them the contention that there is a 
general memory, a general judgment, etc., are no 
longer insisted upon, the prevailing theory being 
that what may cultivate a faculty in a particular 
line does not necessarily improve it along dis- 
similar lines. One long accustomed to memoriz- 
ing "literary gems" finds little difficulty in com- 
mitting them, though he may surprise the student 
of chemistry or mathematics by his inability to 
recall such common formulas as 

TT _. ■ _ sin A 

HoS 4 and tan A = 7- 

4 cos A 

Neither is the habit of careful observation, 
which is a most valuable acquisition, transferable 
to all conditions. Of the guests at a social gather- 
ing, one will remember every piece of music per- 
formed, another every piece of decoration, an- 
other every sally of wit, while still another is 
unable to remember anything except the apparel 
of the guests, which is recalled in every detail of 
texture, color, style, and ornamentation. 

A botanist and a geologist traveling together 
see entirely different objects, the attention of each 
being directed to (not attracted by) what his cul- 
tivated interest dictates. 

The writer had once an acquaintance who was 
totally absorbed in music. An inheritance 
afforded him leisure for his piano. As he had 
never assumed the responsibility of a family he 
lived with his brother, a practical farmer. One 
afternoon the family cow — the only one kept at 
the farm-house ,and which was seen by the musi- 
cian every day — failed to come home at the usual 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 59 

time, and he was requested to look for her along 
the road. In his search he met a neighbor boy, 
when the following dialogue ensued: "Have you 
seen anywhere a cow wearing a bell in the key of 
Cf" "What color is the cow? " * ' I do not know if 
she have a color, but you can tell her by the tone 
of the bell' , . "I saw a big brindle cow down the 
road yonder, but I didn't notice whether she had 
a bell on or not". 

There are various types of memory. Some peo- gjj 6 * 8 "* 
pie have excellent memories for faces, others for memory, 
names. Some mathematicians can not easily recall 
numbers. Street addresses must be constantly 
written for them. It is a common experience with 
them that although they manipulate numbers 
every day, and have at their fingers' end numer- 
ous formulas of algebra, trigonometry, calculus, 
etc., the numbers they see or hear out of their 
usual place can not be recalled. They can not 
recall, after reading an account of a railroad acci- 
dent, whether the number injured was 180 or 1,800, 
can not remember whether a farm contains 80 or 
800 acres ; whether the office address is Koom 481 
or 841. 

In abandoning the old doctrine of general dis- The other 
cipline we should not, as some have done, go to concern^* 
the other extreme, and disclaim any gain whatever dictSSne 
from the pursuit of specific subjects, except the avoided, 
actual knowledge acquired in such pursuit. The 
student of physics learns that it is unsafe to base 
a conclusion or to formulate a theory upon one, or 
sometimes even a dozen, experiments. He 
acquires the conservative habit of thought that 



60 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



TTseful 
hahits 
acquired 
by proper 
study. 



Much of the 
value 
of any 
schoolwort 
depends 
upon the 
manner of 
teaching-. 



prevents jumping at conclusions, a habit of 
thought which is afterwards serviceable to him as 
a juror, a judge, or a teacher. Doubtless, there 
would be fewer controversies concerning the aims 
of education, the transmissibility of characteris- 
tics, the principles and processes in education, if 
such habit were more general among those who 
write on these topics. 

Most subjects of a course of study have many 
similar, even identical, elements and are, there- 
fore, valuable for each other. A knowledge of the 
structure, the grammar, and the idioms of one lan- 
guage is a valuable asset in the study of" other 
languages. While there are no general powers 
of memory, imagination, etc., there are habits of 
thought, processes of arriving at correct conclu- 
sions, ideals of excellence, powers of correlation 
and application acquired in the study of a subject 
that constitute the most valuable and durable 
parts of education. 

Again, it is claimed that it makes not much dif- 
ference what one studies in school, but it is impor- 
tant how one studies, and with whom one studies ; 
that one forgets what he has studied, but he does 
not forget his teacher. Many have quoted the 
advice, "Do not elect a course of study, elect 
your teacher ". Were these contentions literally 
true, the administration of the educational proc- 
esses of a school would be a simple affair. All 
students could be required to take the same course. 
Only the responsibility of selecting the right kind 
of teachers would be weighty, and the construc- 
tion of suitable buildings and obtaining proper 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 61 

equipments important. Smaller faculties would 
be required, fewer specialists would be necessary, 
and the cost of education would be materially- 
decreased. 

These statements, robbed of hyperbole, could 
be made to express the truth. That is, any sub- 
ject may be butchered and its value destroyed by 
an unskilful teacher; any subject may be magni- 
fied and great good derived from it under a mag- 
netic and inspiring teacher working under proper 
conditions. These considerations lead to these 
conclusions : 

No subject should be placed in a curriculum 
simply for its disciplinary value. 

The subject should be worth studying for itself. 

It should have some vital relation to life. 

None of the activities of life are planned or 
prosecuted simply for the sake of practice. Build- 
ings are constructed because buildings are needed ; 
railroads are built because they are necessary. 
Always the ends to be accomplished are the stim- 
uli that incite to exertion. 

The aim of the course of study in the elemen- 
tary or high school should not be solely for prepa- Xitsfor 
ration for entrance to the university. Hardly one coue?e C or 
per cent of the entire school population ever attain ££t to r * ity 
to what we call higher education; only five per Sle ennine 
cent to the grade of our high school. The high curriculum - 
school at present is laboring under the handicap 
of having to be measured by two standards. The 
public at large demands of it to prepare its stu- 
dents for active and efficient participation in the 
affairs of life, the workshop, the counting house, 



62 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Two 

distinct 
standards 
attempted 
"by high 
schools. 



Classifica- 
tion of high 
schools 
often 
arbitrary 
and 
artificial. 



the bank, and the farm, while the higher institu- 
tions are measuring its efficiency by its ability to 
prepare students for entrance to their classes. 
That the effort is being made to satisfy both these 
widely different standards is a just criticism on 
the plan of our educational system. That the uni- 
versities in various sections of the United States 
are rendering efficient and valuable service in 
standardizing the work of the secondary schools, 
and through them the work of the elementary 
schools, is recognized by every one. But in some 
sections of the country there is a growing feeling 
that the spirit of the university savors too much 
of domination, and that undue emphasis in the 
course of study of the other schools is being 
placed upon * 'university entrance requirements." 
The classification of high schools into groups, 
according to the number of "units of affiliation" 
with the university, has set up an arbitrary and 
artificial standard of measuring the efficiency of 
the high schools that is proving in many instances 
much more harmful than helpful. The dissatis- 
faction with the present system is further aggra- 
vated by the conviction that the public high 
schools are as much wards of the state as is the 
university, and are entitled to some consideration 
in all matters affecting education in the state. 
There is a feeling that it is unfair to the other 
schools for the university, although the acknowl- 
edged head of the educational system of the state, 
to prescribe terms of recognition to all others, 
without council, conference or consent. Pro- 
fessional courtesy sometimes operates against 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 63 

needed reforms in entrance requirements and the 
recognition of the work of the high schools, the 
action of the committee on affiliation and recogni- 
tion being often practically annulled by the 
unwillingness of some member of the faculty to 
admit a student to the freshman class or to 
advanced standing without his having had a cer- 
tain specified lettered course in his department. 

A far more helpful and harmonious system of Amow 
affiliation and correlation among all the institu- metnoV 
tions of the state could be had by an educational correlation 
commission, consisting of the State Superinten- schools, 
dent of Education, representatives of each state 
educational institution, and of the public high 
schools, empowered to determine the actual stand- 
ing that should be granted to a student going 
from one to another, the commission being vested 
with authority to make such changes, additions, 
and eliminations in the course of study in any or 
all of the institutions or schools as it deems nec- 
essary to insure perfect correlation. 

Dr. Butler, president of Columbia University, Easy to 
says, "Happily, there are in the United States no tnecoiieg-e 
artificial obstacles interposed between the college university, 
and the university. We make it very easy to pass 
from the one to the other ; the custom is to accept 
any college degree for just what it means. We 
make it equally easy to pass from one grade or 
class to another, and from elementary school to B i fflcu i t 
secondary school, the presumption always being f^ 4 ^ 
that the pupils are ready and competent to go for- jj^schooi 
Ward. The barrier between secondary school and coiiegfe. 
college is the only one that we insist upon retain- 



64 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

ing. The intending collegian alone is required to 
run the gauntlet of college professors and tutors, 
who, in utter ignorance of his character, training, 
and acquirements, bruise him for hours with such 
knotty questions as their fancy may suggest. In 
the interest of increased college attendance, not to 
mention that of a sounder educational theory, this 
practice ought to be stopped". 

Dr. Draper, Commissioner of Education of the 
State of New York, in his "American Education ", 
speaking of the work of the universities and other 
agencies, says: "It is developing a rather com- 
mon belief in the crowd that a university which 
does little besides berate the lower schools about 
suitably training students for itself, is not doing 
overmuch for education". 

The creation of such a commission would har- 
monize all the public educational agencies of a 
state, suppress ill-feeling and end antagonism, 
tend to unite all the state educational agencies into 
a co-operative and sympathetic union, and make 
every citizen speak of them as "our schools", 
what If neither the doctrine of general discipline, now 

%e°in the repudiated, nor the preparation for entrance to 
ium cu ~ college should determine the course of study for 

the common schools, what should determine it? 
Quoting again from Dr. Butler, "The first ques- 
tion that ought to be asked of any course of study 
is, ' Does it lead to knowledge of our contemporary 
civilization V If not, it is neither efficient nor 
liberal". 

Almost every subject that has now, or has had 
for several decades, a place in the course of study 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 65 

in our common schools, may lead to such knowl- 
edge if the methods of instruction are sane and 
the proper aims of education are kept constantly 
in view; but some additions may be profitably 
made, and some of the subjects need the elimina- 
tion of much useless matter, and the vitalizing of 
the remainder. A beginning has already been changre« 

00 " now made 

made in the lower grades. The courses are being i» tfce cirri- 
modified by the elimination of purely formal exer- 
cises like parsing and diagramming, spelling of 
unrelated and obsolete words, omission of the 
oddities, puzzles, and archiac problems in arith- 
metic, map questions in descriptive geography, 
dates of unimportant historical events, and by the 
substitution for them of interesting matter, as 
drawing, music, elementary science, literature and 
handiwork. Effort is being made in the best com- 
mon schools everywhere to correlate the school 
life with that of the larger life of mankind, for 
developing the mind of the pupil in all directions, 
particularly towards the ideals of a socially effi- 
cent individual. 

A socially efficient individual is not merely one ^e efficient 
who can create values himself — he must in addi- 
tion be able to judge values of the products of 
others. All classes of producers are interdepend- 
ent. Each uses the product or the services of the 
other. The man who is uncultured in his choice, 
incapable of discriminating between the worthy 
and the worthless in foodstuffs, clothing, news- 
papers, magazines, books, music, art, political 
service, is of no help to society in elevating 
morals, establishing correct standards of living, 



66 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Distinction 
between 

liberal and 
vocational 
education. 



liberally 
educated 
man knows 
how to esti- 
mate the 
worth of the 
products of 
others. 



or ridding society of inefficiency and corruption. 

Dr. Snedden, in his "Problems of Educational 
Keadjustment' , , says, "Liberal education may be 
denned in various ways, but to the writer, the mosl 
serviceable definition is to be made by contrasting 
liberal with vocational education in the same wa} 
that production and consumption (or utilization] 
are contrasted in social and economic life. Voca- 
tional education is designed to make of a persoi 
an efficient producer; liberal education may be 
designed to make of him an effective consumer or 
user. The liberally educated man utilizes the 
products and services of many producers ; but be- 
cause of his education he uses them well.* * * 
He uses good literature rather than bad; he 
exacts from other producers expert rather thi 
untrained service ; in his contracts he puts a prem- 
ium upon good taste, refinement, and right moral- 
ity. * * * His utilization elevates himsel 
and also the world because of his appreciation, his 
insight, his sympathy". 

Very few can become proficient in music or art 
but many can be taught to appreciate and enjo] 
them. Very few can contribute to real literature 
but many may be taught to appreciate it and coi 
tribute to the cultivation of a pure literary tasl 
among their fellow^. Hence, the chief reason fc 
putting art, music and literature in courses 
study is not to make artists, musicians, or authors 
the percentage of whom must always remain coi 
paratively small, but to render service to society 
by creating a critical, exacting and appreciative 
citizenship. 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 67 

No author should attempt to designate the list wobsst 

x ° course of 

of subjects that would make the best course of study, 
study. There is no best course for all conditions, 
localities, and situations. Local conditions, the 
qualification of the teachers, the dominant spirit 
of the times or the nation, the kind of equipment 
available, all are determining factors in the selec- 
tion and arrangement of the subjects in a course 
of study. 

Educational writers have proposed many Different 
schemes of division of the topics to be considered course» s oi° r 
in planning a course of study. Several authors iSJa.** " 
have recently undertaken to put into a compre- 
hensible form such schemes that have become, as 
it were, crystallized into accepted formulas, and 
it would unquestionably be more profitable to the 
student for the writer to present here for consid- 
eration the classification of some reputable auth- 
ors than to undertake one of his own. The student 
will observe that while these "schemes" differ in 
detail to some extent in the point of view, there is 
substantial agreement as to the essentials of a 
course of study ; the rudimentary principles of the 
subject included to be treated in the elementary 
schools. 

Dr. Butler, after defining education to be the J^SSS' 11 
gradual adjustment of the individual to the spirit- courseg - 
ual possessions of the race, says: " Those pos- 
sessions may be variously classified, but they cer- 
tainly are at least five-fold. The child is entitled 
to his scientific inheritance, to his literary inheri- 
tance, to his aesthetic inheritance, to his institu- 
tional inheritance, and to his religious inheritance. 



68 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Views of 
Dr. Harris. 



"Views of 

Br.Ds 
Oarmo. 



Without them he can not become a truly educated 
or cultured man". 

William T. Harris, formerly United States 
Commissioner of Education, says: "The studies 
of the school fall naturally into these five groups : 
First, mathematics and physics; second, biology, 
including chiefly the plant and the animal ; third, 
literature and art ; fourth, grammar and the tech- 
nical and scientific study of language, leading to 
such branches as logic and psychology ; fifth, his- 
tory and the study of sociological, political and 
social institutions. Each one of these groups 
should be represented in the curriculum of the 
schools at all times by some topic suited to the age 
and previous training of the pupils". 

Professor De Garmo, of Cornell University, 
makes three great divisions of the content of the 
course of study, (1) the Natural Sciences, (2) the 
Humanities, (3) the Economic Sciences. These 
divisions are subdivided further, the first division 
including the exact sciences, the biological sci- 
ences, and the earth sciences ; the second division 
including language, aesthetics, and history; the 
third division including economics, technology, 
manual training, etc. 

A lengthy discussion of the arrangements and 
classifications quoted would be foreign to the pur- 
pose of this work. The student would find it prof- 
itable as well as interesting to consult the authors 
mentioned, who have treated the question of the 
course of study more fully than can be undertaken 
here. 

The young teacher should also examine the 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 69 

courses of study of various high schools and col- JjJJJJJfiJS* 
leges, and endeavor to classify, in accordance with "Jgj^ 
one or all of the three * ' schemes ' ' cited above, the 
various subjects found in the courses published. 
The fields of knowledge have become so vast that 
no one mind can encompass them all. The domain 
of any one of its lowest divisions is so broad that 
the student must select a few from the great many 
divisions and subdivisions. "Electives" are now 
permitted in nearly, if not quite, all the colleges, 
and in most of the high schools of the country. 
But the young student should not be permitted to 
make a patchwork of his education. The courses Each of the 
pursued by any student should contain a minimum divisions of 
of each of the three great divisions of knowledge, should be 
the Humanities, including language, literature, macoura* 
history and art ; the Natural Sciences, including 
mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, etc., and 
the Economic Sciences, including agriculture, 
manual training, etc. The elections among the 
other divisions should have in view a definite end. 
The course of study should lead somewhere. The 
completion of any course should be a guarantee 
of some definite form of skill and culture. 

The Elective System.— The wisdom of the elec- "HUMS' 
tive system has been demonstrated in American g™^££ a 
colleges and universities. Within certain limits it favor - 
has proved practicable in our high schools. The 
elective system permits the student to select a 
course of study, or allows the teacher to select one 
suitable to his capabilities and predilections. It 
recognizes the fact that there are great variations 
in accomplishment among different subjects by the 



70 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Wide range 
of electives 
for the stu- 
dent always 
Impossible. 



same individual. One may have an aptitude for 
natural science and poor mathematical ability. 
Another may be excellent in the languages, but 
have very little capacity for philosophy and there- 
fore, no interest in any form of abstract reas- 
oning. 

But a little reflection will show that even in an 
institution in which no subjects are prescribed, in 
which the entire courses consist of "free elec- 
tives", the actual number of electives for the stu- 
dent is comparatively small when the entire num- 
ber of subjects offered is considered. The student 
finds upon entrance to a university, that he must 
make his elections conform to the schedule of reci- 
tations prepared for the term, and as he has prob- 
ably decided upon his course before entering, he 
often finds a "conflict" in the schedule between 
two of his chosen subjects, and is forced to aban- 
don one or the other. He may chafe in his dis- 
appointment at the failure of the faculty to make 
a schedule by which any student could elect any 
combination desired among subjects offered his 
class. 

The number of different combinations possible 
for a student is limited — dependent upon the num- 
ber of teachers for the class. Now, let us suppose 
that there are 12 subjects offered in the Freshman 
year, and there is a "free election' ' of 4. The 
number of different ways in which four subjects 
may be chosen out of 12 is (see any text in higher 
algebra) 

JU. or 12X11X10 X 9,4fl& 
|4_ [8. 2x3x4 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 71 

That is, of 495 different students entering a class, 
to which is offered an election of 4 out of 12 sub- 
jects, each could choose a course different in some 
particular from all the others. The futility of per- 
mitting unlimited election, even when "free elec- 
tives" are offered, is obvious. 

Some schools permit a variety of choice by ar- selection 
ranging several distinct groups of subjects, allow- course* or 
ing each student to choose a course or group. The subjects 
schedule of recitations for each class is prepared, 
so there is no conflict between two subjects of the 
same group. Under this plan, the student's elec- 
tion ceases, when he has chosen his group. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, AND REWARD OF 
THE TEACHER 



Slany enter 
the ranks 
of the 
teaches 
without 
serious pur- 
pose. 



When one speaks of a physician or a lawyer, he 
means one who has entered with purpose into the 
study and the practice of medicine or law, making 
it his chief business in life. "When one speaks of 
a teacher, he usually means simply one who is 
engaged at the time in teaching. 

This distinction is caused by the recognition of 
two facts : 

1. The demands of society expressed through 
statutory enactments for license to practice medi- 
cine or law have become so great that one will not 
devote to the acquisition of the purely technical 
information the necessary to prepare for the ex- 
amination required for admission to the practice 
unless he purposes to remain in the profession, 
while the requirements for technical training for 
admission into the ranks of the teacher are com- 
paratively few. 

2. The young physician or young lawyer usu- 
ally is forced to wait for an indefinite period for 
clientage and professional fees, while a young per- 
son with a teacher's certificate may find employ- 
ment at once and receive a fairly remunerative 
price for his services. 

The nominal requirements for certification of 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 73 

teachers, the lack of a very definite conception by 
the public of what constitutes expert service as a 
teacher, admits year by year into the school-room 
many young men and women who have no fixed 
aim in life, but who must secure in some way a 
livelihood while casting about and prospecting 
among the other callings for a permanent voca- 
tion. To those loiterers by the way, the motives 
that characterize the true teacher do not appeal. 
This class of sojourners is not in our mind when 
we discuss the qualifications of the teacher. 

Character an Essential Qualification of the character 
Teacher. — However numerous may be the ele- to the 
ments that enter into the efficiency of the school 
as an educational agency, its real worth is most 
dependent upon the character and qualifications 
of the teacher. If his conception of the aims of 
education is false, if his ideals of life are low, if 
he is weak in character, in initiative and in per- 
sonality, unsafe in counsel, untrustworthy or un- 
reliable anywhere, his shortcomings react on the 
school to its injury. The qualifications of the 
teacher, therefore, are pertinent to a discussion 
of education. The good teacher is characterized 
by the same qualities that belong to all good men 
and good women everywhere. It goes without 
saying that honesty, truthfulness, sincerity, and 
all other cardinal virtues are his essential attrib- 
utes. 

Society, in general, demands more of the teacher jhepnjue 
than it exacts of any one else, with the possible ex- tuehig-hest 

. oil • • j rm • character 

ception 01 the minister. The world is aware of the of the 
potency of close, constant association and daily 



74 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Scholarship 
necessary to 
the teacher. 



The teacher 
should "be 
far in ad- 
vance of 
the pupil. 



example, and since the child is in intimate rela- 
tionship with the teacher during the plastic period 
of his life, the public demands of the teacher that 
he possess and that he practice those qualities that 
the child may profitably imitate. We are not se- 
riously concerned in the habits of the merchant — 
content if his goods are dependable; nor in the 
private life of the grocer — satisfied if he sells us 
wholesome foods. We require of the banker only 
that he conduct his business honestly ; but we de- 
mand of the teacher that his speech, his dress, his 
manners, his financial dealings be beyond adverse 
criticism ; that in morals he be upright, exemplary, 
clean and above reproach. 

Scholarship of the Teacher. — Scholarship is 
essential to efficient teaching. Nothing is more 
patent than that one can not teach what he does 
not know. Schools frequently suffer from the 
employment of smatterers. The teacher needs 
exact and accurate knowledge of his subject. He 
needs to know its setting, its history, its applica- 
tion. He should be able to illustrate it from many 
directions. Meager knowledge is a perpetual 
source of trouble. Without scholarship the teacher 
is hampered for want of capital, however well he 
may be qualified in other respects. No good work 
can be done when tools are lacking. The teacher 
should know more than he is expected to teach. 
There seems to be now a concurrence of opinion 
that a teacher's minimum educational training 
should be four years in advance of that of his 
pupils. 

The teacher of arithmetic should understand 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 75 

algebra; the teacher of grammar should know 
something of rhetoric. The. efficiency of a teacher 
is enhanced by his acquaintance with all subjects 
related to those he teaches. The teacher of En- 
glish should know some other language. Each 
language has its peculiar idioms and construc- 
tions, but there are many fundamental principles 
of all language that are general, and with these 
the teacher of any language ought to be conver- 
sant. 

The teacher is never called upon to teach all he **• JSJj^S* 
knows. There should always be a reserve force »°» than, 
behind. Even though occasion never summons it ^j£ff to 
to the front, its possession gives confidence and 
strength to the teaching. It is valuable in that it 
gives the teacher a feeling of assurance and self- 
reliance that begets ease and composure in the 
presence of his classes. No teacher can work up 
to the margin of his attainments. If he does, he 
is in constant peril of falling off. His feeling of 
insecurity when near the brink disconcerts him. 
His pupils realize his danger and watch to see him 
fall — sometimes they wilfully assist in the disas- 
ter. 

For the really competent teacher many qualifi- 
cations are essential, but there is no compensation 
for the lack of scholarship. The teacher is no 
longer supposed to know everything, but he is 
expected to know some things well. Familiarity 
with the topography of all sections of a state is 
expected of no one, but every one is supposed to 
know his own town, its location with reference to 
other towns, the most direct route to its market 



76 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Profession- 
al training 
necessary 
to the 
teacher. 



The teacher 
should con. 
tinue to 
grow. 



Opportuni- 
ties for 
growth. 



and the connections of the railroads passing 
through it. The scholarship of the teacher should 
include not only academic, but professional train- 
ing. The once prevalent doctrine that any one can 
teach anything he knows has been exploded. The 
teacher should understand the aims of the school, 
the purposes of study, the nature of mind, the 
processes of teaching ; he should have very defin- 
ite ideals of character and conduct. Scholarship 
demands continuous study. In all education there 
is no such word as " finished ". 

Growth of the Teacher. — "Whenever a teacher 
ceases to grow he begins professionally to die. 
Therein is a striking analogy between the physi- 
cal and the mental man. The body passes through 
the cycle of development and decay. It is the same 
with the mind, but with this great difference : the 
decline of the mental powers may be delayed and 
the mind kept strong, vigorous, and young as long 
as life lasts. 

The teacher has many opportnuities for growth. 
The processes of teaching others are a perpetual 
fountain of mental youth. Every recitation con- 
ducted, every lesson explained, every exercise cor- 
rected, every act well performed — each contributes 
to the teacher's growth. It is a poor teacher who 
learns less from a recitation than his class. Care- 
ful and conscientious discharge of every duty 
insures growth. It is only by doing our best that 
the best grows better until it becomes good. 

Emerson says, "A man is relieved and gay 
when he has put his heart into his work and done 
his best; but what he has said or done otherwise 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 77 

shall give him no peace. It is a deliverance that 
does not deliver. In the attempt his genius 
deserts him; no muse befriends, no invention, no 
hope". 

It is by doing his best in all situations, prin- "J^J, * 
cipal or subordinate, that man rises to eminence, 
proficiency, and respectability in his profession. 
Some never rise above mediocrity; they never 
grow; they remain professional dwarfs. Their 
ability may be great enough, but their efforts are 
weak. The world honors a growing man, a for- 
ward-looking man. It admires the climber, one 
who sees visions and raises himself toward their 
realization. 

The most valuable thing about experience is the 
opportunity it provides for growth. If the oppor- 
tunity is not used, the experience counts for but 
little. Books, magazines, newspapers, all afford 
means of growth, but the mental food supplied by 
these and by all other agencies must be assimi- 
lated before they contribute to the growth of the 
teacher. Only the food that is digested makes 
flesh and blood. 

The teacher must know how to study. Study is 
one of the fine arts. The printed page may mean 
much or it may mean little. Beading is not always 
studying. It may be purely mechanical. It may 
call into play only the feeblest manifestations of 
intelligence. Pictures, paintings, statuary, to be 
educational, must be studied. They must appeal 
to more than the sense of sight. He who 
only hears music loses its rapturous inspiration. 
Whoever reads a book or looks at a picture sees 



78 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

only what there is in it for him. He may not see 
what the author saw, he may see only what was 
expressed or what was implied. But the master 
student gets more from a good book than the 
author puts into it. He gets also what the author 
felt but did not express. He who plants a flower 
garden is not necessarily its owner. It belongs 
only to him who can appreciate it. The gardener 
may have legal title to the soil and to the material 
parts — the stalks, the petals and the blossoms; 
but the real beauty is the property of him who 
can appropriate it. 

The careful study of a work of art, whether it 
be a piece of mechanism, architecture, or music, or 
of literature, is a means of growth. To learn the 
true meaning of such a work is a problem, and 
we grow by solving problems. We demand the 
pupil to solve problems. Our arithmetics are full 
of them ; grammar has many ; physics, chemistry, 
and other sciences are now taught almost wholly 
by presenting problems ; Harvard University has 
adopted that method in the teaching of law. It 
would enliven the dry bones of history if the text 
books and the teachers would learn to substitute 
for records and narrations, some live, wide-awake, 
problems. 

A poem may have one meaning for one student 
and a quite different meaning for another. They 
may both be right. We can not always interpret 
the thoughts of a writer. That it is not always 
necessary to do so is shown by an anecdote. It 
is told that a dispute once arose in a literary club 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 79 

concerning the meaning of a line in one of Brown- 
ing's poems. In order to settle the matter the dis- 
putants wrote Browning to know what he meant 
by the line in question. He replied that he had 
forgotten. 
A mind grows from direct contact with other iivingrob. 

. Jects con- 

minds without the intervention of pen or pencil, gnmteto 
brush or chisel. Thought always loses in clear- 
ness when reproduced on canvas or stone. There 
is a charm in observing life, action, motion. The 
flying clouds, the dashing torrent, the restless 
ocean appeal to our deepest recesses of feeling. 
Aeschines, exiled from Athens after his memor- 
able contest with his rival and enemy Demos- 
thenes, repeated to his class in oratory a part 
Demosthene's famous oration, "On the Crown". 
When his listening pupils applauded, Aeschines 
exclaimed, "But you ought to have heard the 
brute himself speak it". 

The progressive teacher is using the principle J""jjj" 
of growth when he visits the schools of other me ^* l of 
teachers, attends local and county teachers ' insti- 
tutes, state and national teachers' associations, 
and all other kinds of educational conventions or 
assemblies. 

By visiting the best schools the teacher keeps 
in touch with the new phases of education, new 
methods of teaching. He learns of new equipment 
and appliances, and acquires a new interest in his 
own work by seeing others engaged in meeting the 
same demands and solving the same problems. 

By mingling with teachers from different sec- 
tions and engaging with them in the discussion of 



80 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



First-hand 
knowledge 
most valua- 
Me. 



The teach, 
er should 
identify 
himself 
with the 
community 
in which 
he teaches. 



educational questions he is renewed in spirit and 
strengthened in his grasp of the problems of edu- 
cation. By coming into touch with the leaders 
and master spirits in the profession, he broadens 
his horizon, gets out of the valley and upon the 
mountain top, where he has a better perspective. 

Travel, visits to museums, libraries, great cities, 
and objects of national or historic interest contrib- 
ute to the growth of the teacher. The knowledge 
thus gained of human achievement, of the flora 
and fauna of different countries, of lakes, moun- 
tains, waterfalls, is concrete, first hand, and, in 
many respects, more valuable than that gained by 
other means. 

The teacher must grow socially. Of all voca- 
tions that of teaching demands most of the social 
graces. The recluse can not be a leader. The 
power of adapting one's self to conditions, of en- 
tering into the life of the community, of identify- 
ing one ? s self with his patronage is a factor in the 
success of a teacher that can hardly be over esti- 
mated. In cities where the teacher has little 
opportunity of meeting his patrons socially, his 
power is not widely felt; but in the country the 
opportunities for good through the social activi- 
ties of the community are many, and the maxi- 
mum of the teacher's efficiency is determined 
largely by his willingness and his ability to enter 
into the social life of the people. If he is regarded 
as "one of us" he can lead; if he is regarded 
as an alien he can neither lead nor successfully 
direct. The teacher who lives in the neighboring 
village or city and spends there all his time except 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 81 

the five school days of the week can not secure 
the esteem and co-operation of his patronage. All 
protestations of interest on the part of the teacher 
who spends his entire leisure away from his com- 
munity are discredited. 

Personality of the Teacher.— Another element of 2^255? 
a teacher's success is that enigmatical quality or a21tfactor - 
endowment called personality. It is among the 
subtlest of subtle characteristics. It defies defini- 
tion ; it eludes description ; it baffles identification. 
We are repelled or attracted by it ; we combat it 
or we surrender to it. A positive personality, a 
winning manner, or a magnetic spirit, gives one 
an advantage to begin with. Whatever its ele- 
ments are, whether innate or acquired, personal- 
ity is not a fixed quantity. It is modified by all 
one has seen, heard, or felt. It may be called the 
product of all the influences of environment, 
effort, thought, emotions, possessions, and aspira- 
tions of the individual. 

The Attitude of the Teacher.— The teacher's at- SSfES?* 
titude towards his vocation is an important ele- SJJtaJJ 111 * 
ment of his efficiency and of his happiness in the 
work. Above all else, the teacher must believe in 
his calling. His belief in its importance and its 
dignity must amount to more than interest, more 
than enthusiasm; it must attain to consecration. 
He should regard teaching as a profession and not f JrofSf' 
a trade. Both the trade and the profession are t£ae! 10ta 
honorable. The chief distinction between them is, 
the profession is guided by general fundamental 
principles and immutable laws, while the trade is 
governed by specific rules and directions which to 



82 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The teacher 
must keep 
in sym- 
pathy with 
children. 



Three typea 
of the 
teacher. 



the workman may be quite arbitrary. Those direc- 
tions may rest upon general principles, but the 
workman may have no acquaintance with them. 

The architect must have a knowledge of several 
phases of mathematics, physics and other sciences. 
He is seldom called upon to duplicate a building 
or to use the same plans twice. The carpenter 
who uses the plans follows them according to the 
directions of the architect, often without any 
knowledge of the sciences upon which they are 
based. 

The teacher must believe in teaching as the 
artist believes in art. It must be his pride, his 
delight, his life. He must not be a drudge in spirit 
or a slave in performance. He must keep in sym- 
pathy with the young, with their pleasures, their 
sports, and their aspirations. He must not be an- 
noyed by their boisterousness, their mischief, or 
their prattle. Whoever has lost the pleasure of 
association with children has lost the spirit of the 
teacher. As has been previously stated, the 
teacher must love his subject, but his love for the 
subject should not eclipse his love for the pupil. 

In my experience as a student I recall in this 
connection three teachers. The first (as I after- 
wards learned) had mastered the language of a 
few books. These he knew "by heart" by chap- 
ter, page, and paragraph. He did not need a book 
in hand to conduct the recitation in spelling, read- 
ing, geography, or arithmetic. The younger pu- 
pils wondered how one man could know so much 
as he. But looking back after many years I 
find that he did not reach me or touch me vitally 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 83 

anywhere. He was a booh teacher, and his aim The book 

* teacher. 

was to make an exhibition of his accomplishments ; 
or, if he had any other motive, it was to make 
scholars after his pattern, memorizers of books. 

The second was of a higher order than the first. 
He knew no book ' ' by heart ' \ He had a contempt 
for any one that did. He had a library of works 
on his subject, but he was not bound by their 
teachings. He wrote books, himself. He contrib- 
uted to the knowledge of his time. He knew his 
particular subject. It was his meat and drink. 
But looking back after many years, I find that he 
did not contribute much to my attainment of the 
elements of real education. He was a subject Thesubject 

. teacher. 

teacher, and his aim was to make chemists of his 
students, and to advance human knowledge in his 
subject, alone. 

The third was familiar with the text books he 
used, and skilled in the subject he taught, though 
he was neither wedded to the book nor enamored 
of the subject. But he understood and loved the 
boy. His sympathy was broad, his affection deep, 
and his hopes were high. And, looking back after 
all these years, I find that he was worth more to 
me, and to all the boys that came under the influ- 
ence of his tender heart, his noble example, his 
glorious character, than all the books I ever 
learned and all chemical formulas I ever verified. 
He was a human teacher, and his aim was not to The 
make scholars only, not to make mathematicians teacher, 
merely, but to make men. 

The teacher blunders when he depends upon any 
one or more of the recognized qualifications for his 



84 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Futility of 
dependence 
upon any 
one quail- 
ncatlon. 



achievement. Character is indispensable, but the 
most unblemished character does not make up 
for lack of scholarship, judgment, common sense, 
executive ability, professional skill, tact and other 
essential qualities. 

Neither must one place too exclusive depend- 
ence upon scholarship. Lack of other essentials 
are frequently emphasized by extensive learning. 
Sometimes one remains so long in school and be- 
comes so immured in books and neglectful of the 
social side of life that he is trained away from, 
instead of towards, knowledge of, and sympathy 
with, the practical things of life, and is unfitted 
by attitude and experience for effective work. His 
energies have been exhausted, his sympathies 
atrophied, and his vision impaired. His condition 
recalls to mind the retort of an uncultured candi- 
date to his opponent who chaffed him for his lack 
of education, and expatiated upon his own experi- 
ence of years in college and the law school in pre- 
paring to serve the public capably, when the other 
replied, "My opponent reminds me of one of our 
old Georgia farms, poor by nature and Worn out 
by cultivation". 

The student may forget that there are many 
sides to a successful life. Some of the ablest spe- 
cialists are valuable as contributors to human 
knowledge, but inefficient as teachers. They are 
lovers of subjects, disciples of science, devotees 
of metaphysics, when the schools need leaders of 
children and makers of men. Much learning has 
unbalanced them. They suffer from a kind of 
intellectual intoxication. 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 85 

The teacher blunders when he trusts too much s©if 
to native ability, imusual .accomplishments, or SSStSbS? 
striking personality, and attempts to substitute L a tL eleme,lt 
these for scholarship, industry, and the capacity SSSSSS? * 
for drudgery. Some of the poorest teachers are 
the most entertaining to a class, the most pleasing 
in expression, and the most fluent and elegant in 
speech. They fail in the critical test of the 
teacher, the ability to arouse the student to self- 
activity. Such teachers act as if classes were 
formed for the purpose of affording them oppor- 
tunity for displaying their accomplishments. The 
glamor they throw around their subjects soon 
palls, the gloss soon wears off, and their pyro- 
technics are soon extinguished, and nothing sub- 
stantial remains. Experience 

TTi , not always 

expert service comes with experience. It is »/n«a»tee 

i i , or eSxciency. 

useless to expect the best work from a novice, but 
long experience is no guarantee of efficiency. Ex- 
perience may have crystallized into habits that 
violate every canon of scientific teaching. "The 
pure empiricist never can have any genuine ex- 
perience", says Dr. Nicholas M. Butler, "any 
more than the animal, because he is unable to in- 
terrogate the phenomena that present themselves 
to him, and hence he is unable to understand 
them". The wrong kind of experience — experi- 
ence not founded upon correct principles, keen 
insight, and competent direction— is to be feared. 
School boards need to qualify their requirements 
that applicants for positions must have had ex- 
perience, and make careful inquiry into the nature 
of the experience offered as qualifications. 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



How the 
value of a 
teacher is 
determined. 



Valuable 
qualities of 
the teacher. 



The Value of a Teacher. — The true worth of a 
teacher in a community, a system of schools or in 
an institution depends upon many traits, some of 
Which are not usually mentioned in a category of 
the teacher's qualifications. If a superintendent, 
a principal, or a president of a college is asked 
how he estimates the worth of a teacher, he begins 
to think of reliability, spirit, punctuality, willing- 
ness, loyalty, and other qualities, some of which 
are not readily definable. He places a high esti- 
mate upon the teacher who can be relied upon un- 
der all circumstances; upon one whose judgment 
is sound, whose influence is wholesome, and whose 
example is inspiring. He estimates the worth of 
a teacher by that degree of security that he feels 
in entrusting to him any undertaking or respon- 
sibility. He weighs him with reference to his 
fidelity to trust, his sincerity and his candor in all 
kinds of relations. Every one is afraid of a secre- 
tive, double-faced nature. Diogenes, asked which 
of the animals he regarded as the most dangerous, 
replied, ' ' Of wild animals, the slanderer ; of tame 
animals, the flatterer". 

That teacher is valuable who recognizes that his 
duties and responsibilities do not terminate with 
the recitation, who realizes that the school has 
just claims upon his influence and example, upon 
his habits and conduct during the twenty-four 
hours of the day, the seven days of the week, and 
the twelve months of the year, and who is wise 
enough, and considerate enough, to make this in- 
fluence and these habits such as redound to the 
good of the school. 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 87 

The teacher is valuable also when, in addition 
to other qualifications, he enters the class-room 
with a cheerful, hopeful, optimistic countenance 
that radiates good humor on every hand. loyalty aoe« 

" " m not meet the 

No superintendent or other administrative offi- 2S*?ffS» 
eer could be expected to place a high value upon teacher, 
a teacher who would rejoice openly or secretly 
in the failure of his administration, and folly is 
hardly a term strong enough to characterize the 
conduct of such officer who would recommend the 
re-election of such teacher or acquiesce in his 
retention. But loyalty to the board, to the super- 
intendent, to the principal, or to the president 
does not fill the measure of the teacher's worth 
to an institution. Every school has its ideals, its 
spirit, its traditions. These should not be care- 
lessly ignored or despitefully anathematized. Panties 

No administrative officer places a high estimate 
upon the teacher who performs his duties as if 
they were a task ; who feels that all processes of 
the school are onerous and burdensome; who 
shirks assignment to duty; who suggests that he 
has more work than other members of the force ; 
who counts hours; who must be reminded of his 
assignment ; who is habitually tardy in meeting or 
in dismissing his classes ; who must be prodded for 
his reports ; who tacitly disclaims his responsibil- 
ity in the discipline of the school ; who slights his 
work on committees ; who exhibits in any manner 
a spirit of enmity, envy, or jealousy towards 
other teachers, or manifests an unwillingness for 
cooperation with all the forces of the school. 

The Rewards of the Teacher.— Whenever one 



"business 
nian. 



OO PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

contemplates a life work, there obtrudes the very 
practical question, "Does it pay?" The answer 
to this question as it concerns the profession of 
teaching will depend upon what is meant by pay. 
If it means the amount of money received by the 
teacher for professional services, faithfully and 
skilfully rendered, when compared to that received 
by members of the profession of medicine, law, 
and other learned vocations, or by business men 
of the same amount of preparation, and general 
intelligence, the answer would be that it does not 
pay. 
me teacher The teacher's professional duties unfit him for 

I practical the sharp competition of business, the cultivation 
of the trading instinct, the acquisition of "money 
sense" that enable him, as a general proposition, 
to make any outside additions to what he receives 
for his services. He continually sees around him 
competencies acquired through investments made 
profitable by the enhancement of values, that he 
did not discern, and for which his training gave 
him no power of discernment. The compensation 
of the teacher does not continue to increase with 
age and experience as is the case with the com- 
petent lawyer or physician. The opinion of one 
who has gained eminence in either law or medi- 
cine often commands a high market price, but the 
eminence of the teacher gives to his opinion no 
market value. It is, therefore, more necessary for 
him to provide against the decrepitude of old age. 
There are several reasons for the scantiness of 
the teacher's compensation. 
First, the teacher is a salaried servant or 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 89 

officer, whichever you will. Most professions 
derive their income from fees not fixed by those 
who pay them. The salaries of all who serve the 
public are small in comparison with those of 
others of equal training and skill. 

Second, the services of the teacher do not gf e a "^ a s u for 
directly increase the incomes of those who employ £f^f eratiou 
him, as is the case with those engaged in com- *^J^ e a d B to 
merce, transportation, etc. His services have no *J a J e / g ?*J® r 
immediate money value. The lawyer's service is 
engaged chiefly in transactions involving money. 
The physician restores the health or preserves 
the life, both easily transmutable into power to 
produce. 

Third, the teacher is seldom a fixture. While 
others select their fields, more often other circum- 
stances than his own desires will determine the 
teacher's location. A nomadic life is adverse to 
accumulation of property. Journeymen must 
always be content with journeymen's wages. 

Fourth, it is still too easy to register as a 
member of the teacher's craft. The compensa- 
tion of the professional teacher suffers on account 
of the great number of novices engaged in 
teaching. 

Fifth, the short professional life of the teacher 
is a handicap that can not be overcome. The first 
five years of a vocation is a term of apprentice- 
ship, and the vocation that claims its members 
only during this term can not reasonably expect 
to command master's wages. 

Sixth, the sudden advent of woman into the 
ranks, and the unwillingness of the public to 



90 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



A growing- 
demand for 
the "best 
teachers. 



The teacher 
must convince 
the public 
that he is 
worthy. 



regard her as a professional teacher, so long as 
she, as a general proposition, does not regard 
teaching as her life work, operates to lower the 
teacher's salary. 

The teacher must look elsewhere for his chief 
reward. That he does so is a tribute to his devo- 
tion. He is not consumed with the passion for 
money. He seldom complains at his lot. But 
society is already beginning to give serious con- 
sideration to the value of his services. There is 
now a gratifying demand everywhere for the best 
teachers at good salaries. The entire country is 
being searched for the real teacher. Promotion 
always awaits him. The best teachers are grad- 
ually getting into the best places. It is usually 
the most incompetent teacher that is importunate 
about a raise in his salary. Those who most 
deserve a promotion seldom clamor for it. 

The teacher should always be ready to accept 
a genuine promotion, but by far the greater 
number of changes of his location falls short of 
producing substantial advancement of his pros- 
perity, reputation, or contentment. 

While the teacher should not be anchored any- 
where, his ultimate good fortune depends in a 
great measure upon his suppression of that rest- 
less, unquiet spirit that ' ' robes the distant moun- 
tain in azure hue". 

The teacher must impress the public, his 
patrons, and, above all, his pupils, that he is an 
earnest, skilful artist; that even if he is not a 
scholar, he is a gentleman, or she is a lady; that 
he is a power for good, for progress, and for the 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 91 

elevation of mankind; that he is worthy of his 
hire. By these means the dignity of his pro- 
fession is enhanced, its importance in the economy 
of society is established, and the increase in his 
compensation is assured. 

Even if others, coming after his time, must reap jjgtjjgw*. 
what he has sown, nevertheless, let him sow. It succor., 
is the solemn and sacred duty of every teacher so 
to live and so to work that others after him may 
enjoy the full fruition of his work, and his life ; 
that his successors may find the work more pleas- 
ant and more lucrative for his having been in 
advance. 

But it must be borne in mind that under the gesSS*iS» 
most favorable conditions hoped for by the most °ift!i 1 e aW7er 
optimistic, the compensation of the teacher can P h y» lcian - 
never be made to equal that of those trades and 
professions devoted to producing or protecting 
wealth in the concrete. The successful railroad 
manager, by whose tactics the coffers of a cor- 
poration are rendered plethoric; the capable 
lawyer, upon whose adroitness depends the saving 
of fortunes entangled in the meshes of the courts ; 
the expert surgeon, upon whose skill depends the 
life of a millionaire — these will always command 
a higher price than the teacher, the results of 
whose labors are less immediate, less evident, and 
less easily estimated in money. 

No one must expect the accumulation of a large teacher may, 
fortune from the salary of a teacher. Such a 2? a a y ™t, 
fancy is Utopian. All the faithful teacher can e ** ect ' 
expect is a station of respectability among hon- 
ored men, a decent livelihood, the conveniences, 



92 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

and not the luxuries, of life, means sufficient to 
support, protect and educate those dependent 
upon him, and to save by economy for his declining 
years enough to prevent him from being an object 
of charity or a burden upon others. It is useless 
for him to demand more ; he needs nothing more ; 
he should crave nothing more. 

But the teacher's greatest compensation is not 
measured in dollars and cents. There are higher 
rewards than gold. Custom grants him one holi- 
day in seven in addition to the Sabbath for needed 
recreation and the pleasures of his scholarly 
habits and tastes. His hours of labor are shorter 
than those of most men of affairs who work on 
salary ; and his work, the education of the young 
and trustful, is a task that is in itself a delight 
and an inspiration. 

He is a public benefactor. It is his to train men 
for all the professions, and he must look to the 
rich results of his work for his chief compensa- 
tion. The realization that his is truly a great 
and noble work, the uplifting of the human race, 
the training of the honest tradesman, the upright 
judge, the incorruptible juryman, the virtuous 
statesman, the faithful legislator, the fearless 
manhood and the modest womanhood of the 
nation, gives to him the dignity of character that 
he would not exchange for silver or gold. 

In later life the victories of his former pupils 
are his triumphs; their fame, his renown; their 
honor, his glory; their achievements, his com- 
pensation. 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARD? 93 

There is a beautiful myth found in the ancient 
classics. 

Diana, having prepared a fete, summoned to 
her court representatives of all the trades and 
professions and announced that in the presence "T&eMytn." 
of the gods she would award a golden crown to 
him who would show his craft to be the most 
useful to her realm. 

Her proclamation called from all parts of her 
dominion craftsmen of every trade, all eager to 
gain the prize. 

High upon her chair of state sat Diana to weigh 
impartially the merits of each contestant for the 
coveted crown. 

The sturdy farmer, given a hearing first of all, 
in simple but confident terms urged his claims, 
exhibiting his golden harvests and picturing his The farmer, 
growing fields, displaying in gorgeous profusion 
the products of his toil, emphasizing the antiquity 
of his order, and contending that this trade was 
the basis upon which all the others must depend 
for support. As he retired, Ceres, who sat on 
Diana's left, gave him an approving smile, and 
he felt the contest won. 

Next came the sailor, confident as his prede- 
cessor. He portrayed the dangers of the deep, m9gallof 
the terrors of the storm king, and the sacrifices 
of a life upon the treacherous waves, and en- 
treated a just consideration of the self-denial of 
him who relinquished all the pleasures of a home 
that he might bring to the homes of others the 
luxuries of other climes. He retired not without 
friends among the assembled gods, for Neptune 



94 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The warrior. 



The 

statesman. 



nodded his approval and Aeolus shouted with 
applause. 

Clad in rich paraphernalia of war, with gleam- 
ing helmet and glistening spear, arose the warrior. 
Upon his brow sat courage, and love of battle 
shone from his piercing eye. He strode into the 
arena like a victor proposing terms to a van- 
quished foe. The recital of his deeds of daring 
called forth a murmur of admiration from the 
assembled deities, and Mars applauded vocifer- 
ously. He retired with the martial bearing and 
haughty stride of the destroyer of a thousand 
cities. 

Discomfiture was visible in the faces of all the 
competitors, but the brawny smith, after some 
delay, marshalled courage to plead his cause, and 
exhibit the products of his skill. 

He contended that without the creation of his 
shop agriculture would be impracticable, com- 
merce unattainable, and warfare impossible. He 
credited the arms so boastfully exploited by the 
soldier to his own account, and protested that 
without the products of his forge, man would 
never have emerged from a state of barbarism. 

Upon the conclusion of this passionate oration, 
Vulcan expressed his approbation, but Diana, 
calm and unfathomable, called for other con- 
testants. 

Arrayed in his stately robes of office, appeared 
the statesman, representing, he said, the law- 
giver, the jurist, and the advocate. Practised in 
all the graces of oratory and skilled in the charms 
of rhetoric, drawing inspiration alike from phil- 



CHARACTER, QUALIFICATIONS, REWARDS 95 

osophers and poets, soaring to heights giddy in 
their grandeur, he stood, as he affirmed, the expo- 
nent of the liberty of man, the protector of the 
weak, the defender of the poor. To him, he 
claimed, governments owed their origin, their 
power and their perpetuity; society its existence, 
oaths their sanctity, human nature its culture, and 
mankind its civilization. 

Captivated by the charm of his fancy, the per- 
fection of his logic, and the magnetism of his 
personality, the assembled deities forgot their 
special charges, and the hitherto immobile coun- 
tenance of Diana indicated clearly that the award 
was made. 

But surveying the multitude before her, Diana 
descried in the rear of the court a silver-haired 
man who had taken no part in the rivalry. ' ' Who 
are you?" she asked, "and why do you not 
speak?" 

"I am not a contestant", he replied. "I have 
no champion deity, I am merely a looker-on, these 
young men are my pupils, and I am in attendance 
to congratulate the fortunate one and to console 
the unsuccessful". 

Then, our legend tells us, that a new light shone 
m the eyes of Diana, and that amid the plaudits The 
of the gods and the contestants, she placed the schoolmaeter ' 
golden crown upon the frosted head of the old 
schoolmaster. 



CHAPTER IX. 



SENSORY EDUCATION. 



Wireless 
telegraphy. 



Improved 
methods in 
all activities. 



When a few weeks ago the human voice without 
the intervention of cable or wire was carried from 
the Eiffel Tower in France to a tower in Ar- 
lington, Virginia, and again from Arlington to 
Honolulu, human achievement reached another of 
its climaxes. So rapidly have the products of the 
human intellect followed each other during the 
last few decades that the imagination hesitates to 
venture far into the field of prophecy of the 
marvels that may await the next generation. 

Modern science has revolutionized the pro- 
cesses of every industry, trade, and profession. 
Farming, mining, fishing, teaching, as well as the 
practice of the professions of law and medicine, 
all have felt the magic touch of the wizard Sci- 
ence. A Burbank, an Edison, a Marconi or a 
Pasteur is born, and by his birth new sources of 
knowledge are discovered, and the world is trans- 
formed. The primitive methods of planting, cul- 
tivating, and harvesting, are no more. The 
bacteriologist, with his microscope has overturned 
the old theories of medicine, and the iron horse 
of Watt and his followers, has revolutionized all 
the methods of commerce, traffic, and transporta- 
tion. 



SENSORY EDUCATION 97 

When we consider the almost miraculous 
achievements of the higher powers of the mind, 
we are liable to forget one important fact as AUknowi. 
stated by Comenius, that " There is nothing in tSwJfftS. 
the understanding that has not been first in the senses * 
senses", and forgetting this truth, we are apt to 
conclude that the training of the senses is no 
longer necessary, or that nature and the informal 
agencies of home, society, etc., afford abundant 
opportunity for their development. 

It is true that in a civilized state man's depend- 
ence upon acuteness of sense is not nearly so 
absolute as during the time he lived in the wilds tSS^tW 
of savage life, beset by ferocious beasts and bar- S^al!* 
barous foes, when his chief reliance was upon »****• Ufe - 
stealth and cunning for obtaining his food and 
preserving his existence. Under these primitive 
conditions keenness of sight, acuteness of hearing, 
swiftness of foot, and strength of muscle were 
most valuable and essential attainments. 

It should be remembered, however, that skill 
in the construction of all our mechanisms 
depends upon the accuracy of the sight and the S^SSctnre* 
touch, and frequently the hearing. The skill of JJSSSJ,*, 
the physician in the diagnosis of disease depends 5l«lption. 
considerably upon his accuracy of sight, that of 
the surgeon upon his deftness of touch and adroit- 
ness of hand, while the value of the services of 
jewellers, watch and instrument makers, millers, 
and professional buyers of all kinds of textiles, 
depends almost solely upon the training of one or 
more of the senses. 
Some brands of scientific instruments, as mi- 



98 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

croscopes, theodolites, stethoscopes, as well as 
particular kinds of cutlery, glassware, etc., become 
famous because of processes relying entirely upon 
the efficiency of the senses. Some pottery manu- 
facturers, through their specially trained work- 
men, guard their secret methods, which can be 
learned only through special training of the 
senses, the processes not being susceptible of 
reduction to formulas, recipes, or printed direc- 
tions. 

Lack of skill as a carpenter, blacksmith or other 
artisan, merchant, trader, architect, or teacher, 
frequently results not from want of industry, 
native ability, or intelligence. Nor are workmen 
always inexpert because of ignorance of funda- 
mental principles upon which their vocations are 
based. They are unskilful because they have not 
themselves." learned to see, to hear, and to feel for themselves ; 
because they get their impressions, their opinions, 
and their ideals secondhand. Not knowing how to 
study nature, they adopt what others say of her ; 
not having learned how to observe and interpret, 
they must accept the interpretations of others; 
incapable of initiative, they remain imitators all 
their lives. They learn how to translate from one 
language to another; they become adepts in con- 
struing the thoughts of others, but they have no 
original thoughts of their own. How many cooks, 
with years of experience, have not learned how 
the commonest viands ought to taste, or what 
aroma good coffee ought to have! How many 
housekeepers never learn how to arrange furni- 
ture or to hang pictures tastefully, or to select 



Many do not 



SENSORY EDUCATION 99 

paper, carpets or pictures that appeal to the eye. 
Unpracticed in the use of the senses, the longer 
the experience, the more wooden the products. 

But we are told that such defects are simply „ ,. 

Culture is 

evidence of lack of culture or poverty of taste, tuerefine- 

r . * . meat of the 

Agreed : the term taste is expressive, and culture ssnses. 
means a refinement of all the senses. The cul- 
tured man sees well ; the tawdry and the slovenly 
are as offensive to his eye as the coarse, the ill- 
bred, and the obscene are repugnant to his mind. 

We too often think that we are studying a sub- 
ject when, in fact, we are only studying what 
some one else has said about it. The young 
teacher often fancies that he is studying psychol- 
ogy, when he is merely learning its terminology, 
memorizing definitions, and repeating technicali- 
ties, when he does not know how to study his own 
mind or the nature of the children that cluster 
around him every day. It never occurs to him Thentua ^ 
that right at hand, inviting his finest thought, are gJJJJJ", . 
the living creatures whose features are so feebly subject, 
portrayed in the weary pages of a lifeless book. 
To study psychology is to study children ; to learn 
botany is to learn plants. 

First hand knowledge may not always be the 
most scientifically accurate, but it leads ultimately 
to the safest conclusions. We rely with a greater 
sense of security upon our own impressions. We 
feel surer and safer in dealing with what we know 
for ourselves. We proceed with more confidence 
when relying upon our own knowledge " gathered 
where knowledge grows ". We get the best flavor 



100 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



of the peach, if we pluck it ourselves from the 
tree. 

In the courts of the country, a witness, as a 
general rule, is not permitted to give "hearsay 
testimony". He must tell only what he saw or 
heard, himself; not what another saw or heard. 
This principle of testimony is founded upon the 
fundamental doctrine that knowledge gained di- 
rectly through the senses is most reliable. If all 
men were absolutely truthful and incorruptible, 
the details of a transaction might be transmitted 
through a dozen individuals without material 
alteration, but the chances are that in passing 
through half so many they would be unrecogniz- 
ably mutilated. We revive only our own images. 
We can not transmit them to others. Of ten men 
sitting around a table each sees a different object. 
Each sees the table from a different view point. 
No one of the ten can tell the second one exactly 
what he sees, and the second can not describe to 
the remaining eight just what the first said he 
saw. Photographs of the same garden taken from 
different points will all appear different, some 
feature of each will be wanting in all the others. 
Let a student make a careful drawing of a craw- 
fish; then let a second student copy the drawing 
of the first, a third student, the drawing of the 
second, and then compare the drawing of the 
third student with the crawfish itself, and note the 
want of resemblance. A student once had at- 
tempted a copy of a portrait of his father. Show- 
ing the copy to his brother, he asked an opinion 
of the merit of the drawing, and received this 



SENSORY EDUCATION 101 

comment, "It would be a pretty good picture, if 
you could find anybody for it to favor ". 

It may be urged that there is no general power Wo general 
of observation; that exercises which train the powers - 
observation in one direction do not cultivate it in 
all directions, and that the guest who recalls only 
the apparel of the visitors is a case in point. The 
fact that one recalls only one class of percepts 
when upon occasions many classes are available, 
only proves that he who observes but one class 
has been poorly trained in the use of the senses. 

As a teacher, I once had an experience which 
illustrates the soundness of the doctrine that 
safest knowledge comes through sense experi- 
ences. I had many times tried earnestly (and I gjg^, 
thought intelligently) to explain to pupils what always ^est. 
the textbooks call the "phosphorescent sea" — a 
phenomenon arising from the presence at certain 
times of "innumerable, microscopic, phosphores- 
cent, animalculae", and I had congratulated my- 
self more than once upon having illumined this 
interesting and beautiful phenomenon. But one 
night, as I went with a sail-boat party across 
Matagorda Bay, it happened that these "micro- 
scopic organisms" were having a regular jubilee, 
and our boat cut through them a path of living 
fire, and every disturbed porpoise left a shining 
streak behind him. I then realized fully how 
signally I had failed to give my pupils even a 
faint conception of the gorgeous spectacle. 

Standing one morning on the beach in a city 
on the Gulf of Mexico, I overheard a man remark, 
as he stood transfixed before the phalanxes roll- 



102 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

ing in from the deep, ' ' I am going right home and 
bring all my family here to see this. If I had 
had any idea it looked this way, I would have 
come here twenty years ago". 

Of course, this man had some previous kind of 
conception of what a great body of water is, but 
never until it presented itself "in person" had he 
valued its acquaintance or cared to present it to 
his family. 

That people everywhere are careless observers, 
we have abundant proof. Many who all their 
lives have been readers of books, and newspapers, 
have never taken pains to observe how the letters 
are formed, and their attempts to reproduce them 
from memory show their lack of accurate sense 
perception. Mistakes in the form of the letters 
"N" and "S" are most common. Look from 
your car window, as you pass through any sec- 
tion of the country, and observe the rude signs 
displayed in the shop districts of the cities, and 
you will meet such exhibitions as these : 

feHOE Z HOP 
REPAIRING MEATLY DOME 

Examples of this kind might be cited indefinitely 
to show that in order to form correct images one 
must have received correct sensations. To exer- 
cise the senses well in perceiving the differences 
of objects, is to lay the foundation for all knowl- 
edge, all skill and all discreet and cultured action 
in the course of one's life. Because of the neglect 
of sense training in the schools, because the 
mastery of many subjects is undertaken by ab- 



SENSORY EDUCATION 103 

stract rather than concrete methods, instruction 
becomes irksome to the teacher, study burden- 
some to the pupil, and thoughts, ideas, and con- 
ceptions are confused and unreliable. 

The laboratory method of teaching the natural 
sciences is now universally adopted, and the 
method has passed beyond the stage of needing 
either defense or explanation. The chief virtue 
of the method consists in that the students are oft&e 

-, . ., -, . -, laboratory 

made to use their senses, and not required or per- metnoa. 
mitted to rely solely upon authority. They are 
required to perform experiments, to verify for- 
mulas, to test the truth of laws, and to apply them 
to things that they can see. The time was when 
physics, chemistry, botany, and other sciences 
were taught altogether from textbooks, but, hap- 
pily, that time has passed. The laboratory 
method, modified to suit the subject and the con- 
ditions, is now also used in the teaching of several 
other subjects. Geography and nature study are 
best taught through the images that children have 
acquired through their outdoor experiences. Any 
science that does not bring the student face to 
face with concrete objects is now regarded as a The value 
farce. Modern methods utilize all the experi- experiences, 
ences of the child. Modern teachers have learned 
finally that books do not contain all the knowledge 
that children should acquire, and that the knowl- 
edge gained exclusively through books is less val- 
uable, especially for children, than that acquired 
through personal contact with objects of nature. 
This doctrine is admirably expressed by Whit- 
tier in "The Barefoot Boy". 



"Barefoot 



104 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

Knowledge never learned of schools, 
Of the wild bee's morning chase, 
Of the wild flower's time and place, 
Flight of fowl and habitude 
Of the tenants of the wood; 
How the tortoise bears his shell, 
How the woodchuck digs his cell, 
And the ground mole sinks his well ; 
How the robin feeds her young, 
How the oriole's nest is hung; 
Where the whitest lilies blow, 
Where the freshest berries grow, 
Where the ground-nut trails its vine, 
Where the wood-grape's clusters shine; 
Of the black wasp's cunning way, 
Mason of his walls of clay, 
And architectural plans 
Of gray hornet artisans ! 
For, eschewing books and tasks, 
Nature answers all he asks ; 
Hand in hand with her he walks, 
Face to face with her he talks. 

When all things I heard or sawi 
Me, their master, waited for. 
I was rich in flowers and trees, 
Humming birds and honey-bees; 
For my sport the squirrel played, 
Plied the snouted mole his spade ; 
For my taste the blackberry cone 
Purpled over hedge and stone ; 
Laughed the brook for my delight 
Through the day and through the night, 



SENSORY EDUCATION 105 

Whispering at the garden wall, 
Talked with me from fall to fall ; 
Mine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond, 
Mine the walnut slopes beyond, 
Mine, on bending orchard trees, 
Apples of Hesperides! 

The laboratory method is one phase of the gen- 
eral method of teaching, based upon inductive 
philosophy, the influence of which, within the last of 

hundred years, has transformed the educational, t 5g£J u 2 ilve 
commercial and industrial life of the world, 
brought into existence new arts, new industries, 
new systems of government, new processes of 
manufacture, and new methods of communication 
and transportation, and established new ideals of 
schools, society, and education. Inductive phil- 
osophy seeks the truth through the practical and 
concrete; it is distinguished by the importance it 
attaches to the method of gaining percepts, — by 
the sense process. Its observations are careful, 
and it is equally painstaking in recording observa- 
tions and making inferences, testing by experi- 
ment, finding the relation of every fact to other 
facts, and determining the limitations of its appli- 
cation. It means intelligent use of the eyes, the 
ears, the touch, and the hands. 

It is only in comparatively recent years that 
recognition has been given to the fact that defects 
in the senses, especially in sight and hearing, 
have been the cause of retardation and supposed 
mental deficiency of many children ; most teachers 
formerly taking it for granted that if the child 



106 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

has eyes he can see, and if he has ears he can 
hear. 

Many devices and methods are now used to 

make the work of the school appeal to the senses 

Devices ana f the child. Among the first devices used was 

apparatus. ° 

the map. By means of the map the child gets a 
mental picture of the shape of a division of land 
and water, and of its size relative to that of other 
divisions. The ordinary map, printed on a flat 
surface, has been greatly improved in recent 
years. Schools are now supplied with relief maps, 
which illustrate not only the shape of a continent 
or an island, but show its elevations and depres- 
sions, its mountains and valleys, river basins and 
ocean depressions, so that through the sense of 
sight the child is brought into a knowledge of the 
physical features of the different divisions of the 
earth. 

Nearly all textbooks are now illustrated. The 
art of picture making has kept pace with the pro- 
gress of science. In no other department of sci- 
ence has there been more remarkable advance 
The us© of than in photography, engraving, and all other 
pictures. phases of picture making. The excellence of all 

classes of pictures and their comparatively small 
cost have caused their extensive use in the educa- 
tion of children. Not only are all elementary text 
books well illustrated, but picture charts and wall 
pictures are used in the schoolroom. The im- 
proved stereopticon has become a valuable adjunct 
in sense training or visual instruction. Several 
firms in the United States now make a specialty 
of manufacturing slides for the teaching of his- 



SENSORY EDUCATION 107 

tory, geography, art, and all phases of agriculture, 
botany, physical geography, and nearly all other 
subjects usually taught in the elementary and the JJ 1 ^ 86 
high school. We are just now entering upon a stereopticon. 
new picture era, that of the " moving picture". 
The moving picture business has already assumed 
vast proportions. Many thousands of men and 
women are employed, and many millions of dollars 
invested in its various branches of manufacture 
and exhibition. The throngs that attend the ex- 
hibitions throughout the country testify to the 
popular appreciation of this new form of amuse- 
ment and instruction. The portrayal of noted 
historical events, the details of famous battles, 
and of other noteworthy incidents, has given them 
a new interest, and animated the hitherto dry 
pages of history. 

The school will soon appropriate this twentieth 
century method of teaching many of the subjects 
that now suffer for want of visualization. The J£tiSe. vin8r 
modern photo-engraving surpasses the old wood- 
cut of our fathers, that always had difficulty in 
finding " anything for it to favor". Superior to 
the photo-engraving is the colored picture pro- 
jected by the stereopticon, where on 4 the screen it 
may be studied by the class as a whole, and it now 
seems that the moving picture, that enriches the 
scene with living creatures, rushing torrents, and 
rolling billows, is the climax of appliances for 
sense training. 

Drawing, both mechanical and freehand, should Drawlnff , 
have a place in every elementary course of study. 
It trains simultaneously the eye and the hand, and 



108 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Visualizing 1 
the subject 

matter. 



Making* 

problems 

concrete. 



The real 
purpose of 
drawing. 



gives the child early in its career a correct sense 
of symmetry and proportion. Map drawing in- 
vests geography with a new interest ; many an 
exercise in arithmetic, meaningless under the old 
methods, becomes attractive when the child is 
taught to apply the foot-rule or the yard-stick in 
reducing it to a concrete problem. Whenever a 
mathematical problem can be visualized, the intel- 
ligent teacher Will so treat it. How meaningless 
to the child are all the "examples" usually given 
in " denominate numbers' ' unless the actual 
weights and measures, the pound, the quart cup, 
the yard measure, etc., are present to the senses ! 
Drawing provides the child with an additional 
language. It is one of the universal languages, 
and it supplies an additional and effective means 
for self expression. A striking cartoon that con- 
denses an event or a series of events into the 
narrow limits of a visible image often wields a 
greater influence upon the public mind than the 
most logical and statesmanlike editorial. 

Some drawing teachers blunder by confining 
the activities of the pupil to producing copies of 
the drawings of others. Imitation is the ped- 
agogical plan for beginners, but no one ever be- 
comes self expressive by copying the language of 
another, whether it is expressed in words, ges- 
tures, drawings or paintings. In the teaching of 
drawing, the pupil should be taken as soon as 
possible to nature for models. The teacher should 
understand, also, that learning to draw is not the 
sole object of drawing. The chief benefit derived 
from the exercise is the acquisition of a knowl- 



SENSORY EDUCATION 109 

edge of the object drawn. The pupil is required 
to draw maps, but not for the purpose of be- 
coming an expert maker of maps. Eequiring the 
pupil to devote the amount of time necessary to 
become skilful in map drawing is frequently an 
abuse of the exercise. Accuracy in drawing should 
be insisted upon, but chiefly for the purpose of 
insuring accurate knowledge of the object studied. 

When a young student reported for the first 
time to the laboratory of Professor Agassiz, the 
professor gave him a trilobite, a notebook, a piece 
of drawing paper, and a pencil, and requested 
him to study the trilobite all day; to write what 
he saw, and to make a drawing of the trilobite. Valueof 
At the end of the day Professor Agassiz examined Sj^gJJgf 
the drawing and said, "Go right on, you have not 
yet seen half of it". This process continued three 
days without any assistance, direction, or sugges- 
tion from the teacher, the pupil being required to 
see for himself and to express himself. 

Music as a subject for sense training and self 
expression deserves more attention even now than 
it usually receives. Nearly all cities of the coun- 
try now provide instruction in vocal music for all SKcathmai 
the children. Even to be able to sing simple songs SKfo!" 
from memory is a useful attainment. To be able 
to read music, and later to interpret and to feel 
it is as valuable an accomplishment as to read and 
understand any other language. The practice of 
music has one distinct advantage over drawing in 
the class room. It permits "team work", co-op- 
erative effort. Taught to classes, it not only 
permits but demands unity of action. There is 



110 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

no exercise that demands a greater combination 
of all the senses and faculties at one time than 
the artistic rendition of a piece of instrumental 
music. Dr. Eliot says, "Did you ever watch an 
organist playing an organ with several banks of 
keys and many pedals? That process, particu- 
larly when the organist plays from memory, is 
one of the most extraordinary exhibitions of the 
simultaneous action of many parts of the nervous 
system of which the human being is capable. The 
hands and the feet move rapidly and rhythmically, 
each hand and each foot being separate from the 
other in its motions ; each finger works separately ; 
the ear takes instant note of the time and the 
harmony and of many details in the volume of 
sound ; and then the memory is at work in repro- 
ducing the composition from a record which exists 
at the moment only in the brain of the player. 
For an effective training of that complex nervous 
system which serves what is called the mind, 
playing upon a musical instrument, or singing, 
excels every other training of the nervous system 
to coordinate action, simultaneous within a frac- 
tion of a second, the coordination of all the nerves 
and senses in action being often intense and 
intensely enjoyable". 

A recent and valuable aid in teaching music is 
*«e the phonograph which is being rapidly appro- 

as a a s«fhooi h priated by the school for the cultivation of a pure 
musical taste. At only a nominal cost, consid- 
ering the number it serves, every school can now 
be supplied with this marvelous product of man's 
ingenuity. The phonograph gives every day 



instrument. 



SENSORY EDUCATION 111 

faithful reproductions of the music masters, and 
it enables every school to give a graded course 
in music appreciation, besides proving remark- 
ably helpful in teaching singing in the common 
schools. 

Music, vocal and instrumental, may be called 
an intensely " domestic art". "What can serve E c s * t ?cart. 
more effectively to keep children off the streets, 
from- leaving the home for entertainment, amuse- 
ment and self expression than music in the home, 
where all can participate? One of the happiest 
families that I have ever known was one in which 
every member of the family had a place in the 
"home orchestra". 

Industrial training, more particularly those 
phases of it included in agriculture, manual train- 
ing, and domestic science, has grown in popularity 
during the last twenty or thirty years, for the 
reason that it brings the student face to face with 
the most concrete and practical problems of life. 
Elementary agriculture, as it can be taught in 
the high schools, not only trains the perception 
and the judgment but furnishes many forms of 
genuinely useful information. The germination Agrrictatur©. 
of seeds, cultivation of the soil, processes of 
grafting and budding, soil inoculation, drainage, 
value of seed selection, nutritive value of differ- 
ent feeds, breeds of domestic animals, methods of 
testing milk and of producing clean milk and 
butter, destructive insects and methods of their 
control, are all questions germane to the work. 

In manual training an excellent experience is 
provided for the eye and the hand. Excellent 



112 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The home 
formerly an 
industrial 

educational 
agency. 



drill is insured by the course in mechanical draw- 
ing. Skill in the use of tools and machinery in 
constructing articles of furniture is acquired. 
One of the most valuable, as well as one of the 
best examples of the strictly concrete exercises, 
requiring accuracy of eye, hand, and judgment, 
is found in the student's process of moulding or 
forging an article of iron. 1, he makes an ac- 
curate drawing of what he has planned in his 
mind. 2, he fashions a wooden model of it from 
the drawing. 3, he makes a cast of the model in 
plaster of Paris. 4, he moulds the article. 

Domestic science takes the student into a field 
that is preeminently utilitarian. The proper 
method of preparing food has a practical applica- 
tion in every household, and other phases of the 
subject are as useful in their application as cook- 
ing. A course in domestic science should prepare 
the young woman to preside over a home and 
direct its affairs intelligently and joyfully. The 
course should include not only the preparation of 
food — including cooking — but all those subjects 
that pertain to the administration of a home — the 
kitchen, the dairy, the laundry, the parlor, the 
bedroom and the nursery. Instruction should be 
given in subjects that pertain not only to the 
practical or useful, but also to the ornamental. 
The home ought to be not only clean, tidy, and 
sanitary; it should be also beautiful. 

Industrial training in the school is more neces- 
sary now. than ever before. The time was when 
every family felled the trees and built its house, 
made its furniture, wove its clothes, and crudely 



SENSORY EDUCATION 113 

manufactured nearly all utensils and tools em- 
ployed in the home or in the field. In those days 
every boy and girl had a part in these industries 
and thus received a practical training that the 
home under modern conditions can not provide. 

The introduction of mechanical and industrial 
training in the schools has been a protest against not us! 
the once prevalent idea that education was a thing 
apart from the actualities of life, having only 
culture for its goal. But there are some dangers 
attending the new education. When we conclude 
that man is not educated by books alone, we must 
guard against the other extreme of attempting to 
educate without books. While education must 
deal with the concrete, the abstract is still as vital 
as ever. Learning to see and to hear intelligently, 
and to work skilfully with the hands, does not 
make the sum total of a liberal education. Educa- 
tion is a development from the ability to handle 
concrete things to the ability to handle and to 
comprehend abstract things. The trained mind is 
one that can pass readily from the concrete to 
the abstract. The student must be so trained that 
he can pass easily from arithmetic, which deals 
with concrete numbers, to algebra, which deals 
in symbols representing general (abstract) quan- 
tity. 

The workman deals only with the concrete 
object; he shapes and fashions the materials The work- 
under the supervision of the mechanic. The me- mechanic, 
chanic deals with both the object and the drawing, SSJJeet. 
which is the abstract representation of the object. »*rt amXme 
He is under the direction of the architect. The S^ree?* 



114 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The proper 
use of the 
laboratory. 



The note 

book abuse. 



architect deals with both the object and the draw- 
ing, and also with the more abstract vision, which, 
to become of practical utility, must be reduced to 
the drawing, and then to the material form. The 
architect plans; the mechanic interprets; the 
workman performs. The workman employs per- 
ception, the mechanic perception and conception, 
the architect perception, conception, and imagina- 
tion. The workman is practical ; the mechanic is 
practical and executive ; the architect is practical, 
executive, and theoretical. 

There is also the danger of too great reliance 
upon laboratories and equipments. Properly to 
serve the purposes of education, these must be 
intelligently used. Of what advantage is it for 
an institution to have all manner of apparatus if 
it is not used ? None greater than that of having 
a great library when the books are not read. As 
a library is a place to read and not to hear the 
librarian read, so is a laboratory a place to work 
and not to see the teacher work. 

Nothing in, about, or around a school ought to 
be for shoiv. Constant pandering by an educa- 
tional institution to popular applause, exploita- 
tion of so-called advantages, in the way of build- 
ings and equipment is undignified, if not repre- 
hensible. 

Another danger is worth calling attention to. 
That is the note book abuse. The scientist in his 
investigations carefully records all his observa- 
tions and experiments for the purpose of recalling 
easily the facts discovered. They become his 
authority in subsequent investigations. He refers 



SENSORY EDUCATION 115 

to his notes constantly. But the student is too 
often trained to put in his notebook the things 
he should put into his head. Gradually he ac- 
quires the idea that whenever the result of an 
investigation or an experiment is recorded, the 
work is finished. He depends too often upon 
things in his note book when they ought to be in 
his mind. If a fire should consume his board- 
house, it would burn up all he knows. 

It would be well for every teacher to call upon 
the pupil occasionally to discuss his own notes 
before the class. So thoroughly has the note book 
fetich possessed the student that it is not an in- 
frequent occurrence that one presents his note 
book as his qualification for entrance to college 
with advanced standing without examination. 
The note book "fad" attacks all departments of 
the school, it invades the precincts of subjects 
that should be carried at all times in the mind. 
We find note books in geometry, in which the 
"originals" are solved, note books in history, in 
which dates are recorded, note books in arith- 
metic, in grammar, and in spelling. When we 
think of the absurdity of some of these records, 
we are reminded of the man who spent his time 
preparing an index to the dictionary. 



CHAPTEE X. 

THE CONCEPT m EDUCATION. 

Theeauca- -^an * s dependent for all primary knowledge 

Keiier. K{ * en u P on the sense avenues between his mind and the 
external world. Probably the greatest triumph 
of the teacher's art is exhibited in the case of 
Helen Keller, who, though blind and deaf from 
early childhood, with the two most important 
avenues closed, has been developed into a cul- 
tured woman, accomplished in several languages, 
and conversant with all the great economic and 
educational movements of ancient and modern 
times. What, in her case, seems more wonderful 
still, is that she, who has no recollection of having 
ever heard a sound, has cultivated her vocal 
organs until she can speak her mother tongue, and 
can discard the usual methods of the blind and 
deaf in the expression of thought. Miss Keller 
has been educated through the remarkable de- 
velopment of the sense of touch. Had that avenue 
been closed and the remaining senses been want- 
ing also, there would have been no means of con- 
veying a sensation to her mind, or of drawing 
from it the faintest gleam of intelligence. The 
external world, and even her own personality, 
would have remained to her unknown, and her 



THE CONCEPT IN EDUCATION 



117 



mind, if a dormant brain conld be called a mind, 
would have been an untenanted void. 

But the senses can convey to the brain only 
the impressions they receive. They do not pro- gjjja, 
vide real knowledge. The sense organs of idiots, knowledge, 
insane persons, and the lower animals, are as well 
developed physiologically as those of the most in- 
telligent scholar or the most learned scientist. 
Man, after all his training, is weak in contrast to 
the lower animals in the acuteness of the physical 
senses. Through the sense of smell the wolf 
traces unerringly the path of a deer many hours 
after it has gone. Such achievement is impossible 
for man. Through the sense of hearing the deer 
perceives the approach of an enemy when it is still Acute^enses 
far away. The breaking of a twig or the rustle 
of a leaf is conveyed to him over long stretches 
of wood or plain. The hawk, as he glides rapidly 
over the grass grown field, discovers the hiding 
hare where man would pass him without notice. 

The use made of the impressions received 
through the senses depends upon the kind of 
brain by which they are received. Before they 
are available for service, these impressions must 
be worked over, refined as it were, as the crude 
ore is smelted before the pure metal is obtained. 5£ot?i£? 

Perception. — The function of the brain that in- &r r &ter°pr e e r - 
terprets the impressions received through the tatxon - 
senses is mind. The senses are called the pre- perception. 
sentative faculties, their special function is called 
sensation, and the function of the mind that refers 
these sensations to the objects that produce them 
is called perception. Sensation and perception sensation. 



118 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Observation, 



Percept. 



Image. 



Imagination. 



Complete 
perception 
depends upon 
previous 
experience. 



together constitute observation. The knowledge 
of an object gained through observation, that is 
through one or more of the senses, and referred 
to its cause, it called a percept. The percept is 
the interpreted sensation. A percept, when once 
in the mind, may be revived when the object pro- 
ducing it has been removed and is no longer in 
position to affect any one of the senses. This 
revived effect is not, itself, a percept, but a copy 
of a percept, and is called an image. The process 
of forming images, or reviving percepts, is called 
imagination. 

From the foregoing definition of perception, it 
is evident that what is gained through the senses 
alone does not determine the significance of the 
percept. In no two individual minds, observing 
the same object, is formed the same percept or is 
awakened the same train of thought. What a 
flower is to the botanist is quite a different thing 
from what it is to the artist. Previous experi- 
ences, biases, prejudices, even present mental or 
physical conditions, all exert a determining influ- 
ence upon the significance of a percept. We may 
all see the same thing, but no two see it alike. 
Each gives his own coloring to what he sees. We 
may all hear the same thing at the same time, and 
from the same point, but no two of us can recall 
the same sounds, or reproduce the same con- 
versation. What each sees is modified by what 
is in his mind at the time; what each recalls is 
determined by what part of it is most interesting 
to him. Every book we read, every picture we 
see, depends for its interpretation upon our 



THE CONCEPT IN EDUCATION 119 

former experiences. If there has been a paucity 
of experiences, there is a weakness of the percept. 

Apperception. — The function of the mind that 
interprets the percept in the light of past experi- 
ences, combines it with images of former percepts, JgjgJk. 
unifying them into a new and more comprehen- 
sive percept, is called apperception. It is through 
apperception that the mind groups related ideas, 
enlarges the groups by the addition of new per- 
cepts and new experiences, correlates all the ac- 
quisitions in all the arts and sciences, and raises 
the standards by which we form judgments, and 
comparisons. This principle of mental activity is 
meant when we say that the natural order is known to the 
' 'from the known to the unknown". Whenever "* 
the child meets a new object, he names it in con- 
formity to some past experience. His use of 
words and his coining of new words can always 
be traced to ideas back of him. A child, whose 
father had just brought home some doves, said: 
"Mamma, may I pick the leaves off these birds"? 
At another time, finding his little brother had run 
his hand into a stovepipe that was lying in the 
yard, he said: "Mamma, the baby has put his 
hand into the chimney-post and got shoe-black all 
over him." Through apperception the mind is 
continually interpreting new facts by means of 
ideas already in possession. 

Apperception is not a distinct mental process. 
It is one of the components of every significant 
percept, and as such it enters vitally into all the SI 1 * 1 ** 68 
processes of learning and largely determines the Ir^con^ 8 
efficacy of the processes of teaching. It com- f^ffi. 



120 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Changes In 

the concept*. 



Growth of 
ooneepte. 



prises the processes of evolution and assimilation. 
Our standards of morals, of men, of beauty, of 
utility, even of size and distance are being con- 
tinually revised, because our new experiences are 
constantly enriching our mental content and dis- 
covering to us the deficiency of the percepts pre- 
viously formed. We are continually revising our 
estimates. Wealth of experience changes our 
standards. Our first teacher was in our estima- 
tion accomplished in all the arts and graces that 
mark a great man. When we meet him after 
many years we find that a great change has come 
over him. He has lost in scholarship, in general 
knowledge, in intellectuality. We wonder what 
has befallen him. But he may have, in fact, not 
changed one whit. We ourselves have changed. 
Since we first knew him we have met many men 
of superior attainments, and our ideal of men has 
changed. 

We have a distinct recollection of the home of 
our childhood. We remember the orchard, the 
garden, the cow-lot, and the well; the path that 
led to the spring, and the huge oaks that skirted 
the road. When we return after many years we 
are surprised to find that everything has shrunk. 
The trees are not so tall; even the hills are not 
so high; the well seems nearly filled up, and the 
spring has been brought nearer the house. The 
house itself has lost in size and grandeur; its 
ceilings are low, its halls are narrow, and alto- 
gether it is a commonplace affair. The old farm 
once so vast that we were afraid of being lost in 
our rambles among its brakes and jungles, has 



THE CONCEPT IN EDUCATION 121 

suffered the general shrinkage. How changed 
seems everything ! The changes seem so real that 
it is difficult to discover the cause. But the change 
has been in us. The content of our minds has 
changed. We measure by a new chain; its links 
are longer, and there are more links in the chain. 
The Concept. — The percept contains a number 
of elements, such as size, shape, color, structure, 
hardness, etc. When the percepts of the indi- 
vidual things we see agree in a number of these 
elements we say the things are of the same hind. 3?| ?minJ B 
But the individuals of a kind generally differ in «»«<**■• 
some points which are called differences. When 
percepts of several specimens of the same kind 
have been formed in the mind, the elements they 
have in common form a deep impression, while 
the differences produce scattering, and, therefore, 
lighter impressions. The light impressions van- 
ish while the deep impression has a more lasting 
effect. This is like the image of the photograph- 
er's plate of a composite photograph. This com- 
posite image, having all the characteristics that 
are common to the individuals composing the kind 
or class, is called a concept. While the percept, 
then, is the idea of an individual thing, the con- 
cept is the idea of a class. Stating it in another 
way, if w;e ignore the individual differences of 
several individual robins, we arrive at the con- 
cept robin. In the same manner we form the con- 
cept dove, lark or swallow. If we consider only 
points of agreement or similarity among robins, 
doves, larks, swallows, etc., ignoring the class-dif- 
ferences or differentia, in size, color, structure, 



The 

definition. 



122 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

etc., we reach the concept bird. Continuing the 
process we arrive at the concept vertebrate and 
then animal. The sum of the elements involved 
in a concept is called the connotation, while the 
number of concrete objects to which the term can 
be applied as a name is called denotation of the 
term. The fewer the elements considered in form- 
ing the concept, or the less its connotation, the 
wider is the application of the concept or the 
greater its denotation, and vice versa. 

Science is one aspect of a system of concepts, in 
which the concepts of wider application are the 
higher. The location of any concept in the system 
of knowledge is its definition. A definition is gen- 
erally the naming of the superior concept, and the 
additional statement of the differentia that dis- 
tinguish the smaller kind from other kinds in the 
larger class. 

The fewer the elements that enter into a con- 
cept, the more abstract and the more general it 
is, and the more exact will be our thoughts with 
reference to it. The mathematician thinks in 
general terms when investigating and defining the 
properties of triangles, quadrilaterals, circles, 
etc., and, therefore, his science can be more exact. 

The more numerous the elements that enter into 
a concept are, the more concrete and specific it 
is, the less exact will be the thinking in regard 
to it. Hence, the natural sciences, which deal with 
rocks and plants and animals, are said to be 
less exact than the mathematical and physical 
sciences, while the social sciences, which deal with 
specimens of the most complex combinations of 



THE CONCEPT IN EDUCATION 123 

qualities, namely, men and groups of men, are the 
least exact of all. 

Formation of the Concept. — The process of 
forming concepts are Observation, Comparison, 
Abstraction, and Generalization. Illustrative of 
this and the preceding paragraphs relating to the 
concept, some things already stated will be re- 
peated in a more concrete way. The student of SonX™*" 
botany may begin with the study of the leaves of oonoei,t8 - 
plants. He observes their differences, and among 
other peculiarities he finds by comparison that 
some are parallel-veined and others netted- 
veined. He then considers apart from the leaf 
itself the characteristic of each ; that is, he draws 
off, abstracts the characteristics for consider- 
ation, ignoring all other qualities, as color, shape, 
etc. Having separated the parallel-veined leaves 
from the others, he generalises; that is, he 
applies the quality of parallel- veined to a group. 
This group idea is a concept of a class, and the 
entire process by which it is reached is the bota- SaSS^«S». 
nist's method of classification. 

In observation, comparison, and abstraction, a 
limited number of objects is considered, and some 
quality or characteristic common to all is selected, 
but in generalization the mind classifies into one 
group not only all the individual objects examined 
that have the characteristics, but all other objects JJgJgJ ot 
that possess such characteristics. These general gj^jgf*" 
notions expressed in language are the principles, 
rules, definitions, or laws of the sciences. This 
process of classification, of reaching a group idea 
from the examination of individuals, is invoked 



tlOB. 



124 PRINCIPLES AND PKOCESSES 

when we are admonished that we must proceed 
from the particular to the general ; from the con- 
crete to the abstract. 

As a further illustration of the method of form- 
ing concepts, the following is taken from Bergen 
and Davis' "Principles of Botany ", page 152. 

"The classifications of animals and plants are 
attempts to express the actual kinships, or what 
among human beings are called blood relation- 
ships, which are believed to exist among them. To 
illustrate the principles of classification let us 
J? tSe*** 1011 consider the position of the pines among plants. 
«£■££»! AH of the pines have for their fruit a scaly cone 
whose seed are borne naked at the base of each 
scale and mature the second year. The leaves are 
needle-shaped, evergreen, and clustered. Any tree 
which has all the characteristics above given is a 
pine. 

' ' The spruces, hemlocks, firs, and larches agree 
with the pines in many respects, but all of them 
mature their seed the first year, and their foliage 
is different. The American cypress has a glob- 
ular woody cone and deciduous leaves in two 
rows. The arbor vitse and the juniper have awl- 
shaped or scale-like leaves, not in clusters. 

"All of these cone-bearing trees are distinct 
kinds, but they are grouped together because the 
seeds are borne naked on the scales of the cones. 
This peculiarity separates the group from a much 
larger assemblage of seed plants in which the 
seed are borne enclosed in seed cases, pods, or 
other types of fruit. Finally, all of the seed- 
bearing plants are separated from the spore- 



THE CONCEPT IN EDUCATION 125 

bearing groups by the possession of methods of 
reproduction which develop seeds. 

"Thus the pines find their place in the classi- 
fication of plants through clearly marked charac- 
ters which define several different groups. These 
characters are (1) the presence of the seed, (2) 
the fact that the seed are exposed or naked, (3) 
the development of the seed in a cone type of 
fruit, and finally, (4) some peculiarities of the 
cone, and the character of the foliage. The pro- 
cess of classification leads from an assemblage of 
more than one hundred thousand kinds of plants 
(the seed plants), through successively smaller 
divisions, to the relatively small group of the 
pines, with hardly more than seventy known 
kinds.' ' 

The teaching process must constantly deal with 
the method of forming concepts. The concept is 
the goal of instruction. Detached, unrelated facts 
are valuable only so far as they serve as nucleii 
out of which general truths are evolved. The 
solution of a particular problem in arithmetic is 
useful only so far as it causes the recall of general 
principles ; or leads to their application to similar 
problems. Our text-books are now presenting no 
problems that serve merely as mental gymnastics. 



CHAPTER XI 



THE PROCESS OF THINKING 



The three 
stages of 
thinking. 



Conception. 



Judgment. 



There are three aspects, or stages of thinking : 
Conception, Judgment, and Reasoning. These 
are not three distinct or successive mental acts; 
but each is dependent upon the other two. 

No line of division can mark the boundaries be- 
tween any two of the various mental processes. 
The mind does not consist of distinct faculties, 
nor is one kind of mental activity wholly differ- 
ent from another kind. There is diversity but 
unity in all. 

Conception. — As conception, the first step or 
stage in the process of thinking, was fully 
explained in Chapter X., it will not be discussed 
further. 

Judgment. — Judgment is the process of compar- 
ing two concepts, to ascertain if they agree or dis- 
agree. In this process there must be two, and 
only two, concepts taken at one time. 

When we compare the concept sheep with the 
broader concept animal and find that they agree, 
we say, "a sheep is an animal.' ' This is a posi- 
tive judgment. If we compare the concept sheep 
with the concept goat and find that they do not 
agree, we say, "the sheep is not a goat". This is 
a negative judgment. 



THE PBOCESS OF THINKING 127 

Reasoning. — Reasoning is the process of com- 
paring two judgments, and from them deriving 
a third. Take the classic illustration: All men BeaBonin*. 
are mortal; Socrates was a man; therefore, Soc- 
rates was mortal. The three sentences, or judg- 
ments, as used in the above illustration, together 
form a syllogism, the usual form of deductive 
reasoning, which will be treated later. To enter 
into the various classes of the syllogism would 
take us too far afield. For their treatment, the 
student is referred to any good text on logic. 

Thinking may be regarded as a general func- 
tion of the intellect. Whenever one is forming 
percepts, concepts, or judgments; whenever one 
is studying relations or discovering differences; 
whenever one is weighing, comparing or classify- JJJJJJH** 
ing, or is engaged in any of the activities gJ^JJ^ 01 
described above, he is thinking. Often in thinking 
one recalls many percepts and concepts that after 
a little reflection are found irrelevant to the mat- 
ter in hand; the judgment rejects these as not 
agreeing with others in the "chain of thought.' ' 
Thinking, then, confines itself to the consider- 
ation of things that are relevant ; that is, thinking 
necessitates attention. 

Again, thinking is an effort to solve a specific 
problem, or to reach a definite conclusion, by 
applying experience previously acquired. The 
solution of any problem is dependent upon the 
relevancy of the knowledge and experience 
brought to bear upon it. 

When we have a toothache we go to the dentist, 
when our eyes give trouble we go to the oculist, 



128 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Faulty 
method of 

questioning 
pupils. 



Ability to 

to think 

quickly 

dependent 

upon 

experience. 



because in each case we expect to find previously 
acquired experience requisite to efficient service. 
The teacher does not use similar judgment when 
he fails to direct the pupil's preparation of mind 
for the comprehension of the lesson assigned, or 
for the solution of a problem proposed. The pro- 
miscous propounding to pupils of unrelated ques- 
tions, when no pertinent experience has been pro- 
vided, cultivates in them the habit of random 
guessing, the effects of which are pernicious. The 
ability to think quickly and accurately when a 
problem arises unexpectedly, is gained by dili- 
gent and careful training in the processes of 
thinking, and the acquisition of a wealth of knowl- 
edge in that domain of thought to which the prob- 
lem belongs. 

The lawyer frequently saves his cause by his 
ability to cite decisions of the higher courts; as 
often he loses his cause because of inability to call 
quickly into consciousness, precedents, rulings, 
and decisions in support of his contention. 

The problem for solution may be that of the 
classification of a plant, the identification of a fos- 
sil, the diagnosis of a disease, the sailing of a 
boat, the driving of an automobile, the planning 
of a political campaign, the conduct of an exposi- 
tion, or the regulation of the tariff — each a speci- 
fic problem — one simple, another complex, the 
solution of each demanding ideas, whose posses- 
sion depends upon our previous associations with 
matters similar to the problem presented ; and the 
efficacy of our thinking will depend upon the store 
of our observations, memories, concepts, and 



THE PEOCESS OF THINKING 129 

imagination, and our ability to call them into 
mind when needed. 

Since the concept is so vital a part of the pro- 
cess of thinking, the necessity for clear concepts 
is evident. One's conclusions are often erron- 
eous, not because of defective reasoning power, 
but because of defective concepts upon which the concept* 
reasoning is predicated. The concepts are data ?o rTJnt 1 * 
upon which are based the judgment and the rea- ° 
soning. If the data are false, the conclusions will 
be wrong, even though the reasoning process has 
been faultless. 

It is important that two persons dealing with 
each other, whether in buying or selling, in cor- 
respondence, or in ordinary conversation, under- 
stand alike the terms employed. Confusion, 
misunderstandings, quarrels, and lawsuits are 
avoided by previous agreement as to the meaning 
of all the terms used in a contract. Probably no 
word, especially if it is the name of an abstract 
concept, conveys exactly the same meaning to two 
individuals, since the concept of each depends for 
its significance upon his previous experience. 

As has been previously stated, the concepts of 
every one grow. Reading, travel, study, experi- 
ence — all bring into the mind new features, new 
characteristics that enrich and more clearly define 
every concept acquired. 

. . . Words 

It is imperative that the teacher ascertain what jjjjj, ™* 
is in the mind of a child trying to express himself JSJJJf 0Be 
in words. The relations and the name of the con- "f. S nknow11 ' 

a serious 

cept are matters of serious concern, that too fre- fault - 



words. 



130 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

quently are slighted. "Words without ideas' ' 
has been long decried by writers on the teaching 
of children. Pupils frequently fail on recitation 
or on examination because of their ignorance of 
the import of the questions propounded. Mis- 
takes concerning the nature of questions — of the 
meaning of words in a particular relation — are 
not confined to young children. For instance, a 
few years ago the writer was called upon to exam- 
in the papers of a great many applicants for state 
teacher's certificates. Among the questions in 
S2S?o? physical geography was this: "Name the three 
states of water?" More than ten per cent of the 
applicants failed to answer this question cor- 
rectly, solely on account of misapprehension con- 
cerning the import of the word "states" in the 
sentence. Had these applicants thought once that 
the question meant only to ask what three condi- 
tions or forms water might assume, many of them 
would have easily answered the question cor- 
rectly. As it was, their answers varied, some an- 
swering i ' Michigan, Ohio and New York, ' ' others 
"Michigan, Illinois, Ohio," etc. 

Every school should have an unabridged dic- 
tionary, and, in addition, every student should 
have a small edition in his desk. But the matter 
of determining whether the student really knows 
what he is talking about can not be settled by his 
ability to define words according to the diction- 
ary. I remember that when a child I met the word 
"roquelaur," and in endeavoring to learn its 
meaning, I found the dictionary defined it as "a 
kind of surtout," but as the copy I possessed 



THE PROCESS OF THINKING 131 

omitted to define "surtout," I was as much in the 
dark as before. 

Men change their opinions not becanse their 
judgments are riper — or their reasoning is bet- 
ter, but because their conceptions have grown; JjhaXeof 
because they see problems in relations that they op* 10 *- 
did not at first discern. Both Webster and Cal- 
houn reversed their views concerning the "tar- 
iff," Gladstone changed his position on several 
important questions. 

Faulty concepts lay the predicate for faulty 
judgments. Unless there is a clear conception of 
each of the two terms compared, no judgment con- 
cerning them is reliable. 

Two farmers may differ widely concerning the 
value of a tract of land, because one estimates JS^X** 
how much wheat, and the other how much cotton SSfeSJS 1 

, . ' our expert- 

it will produce. Each thinks of what it is worth eaces - 
to Mm. Two different men express different 
opinions concerning Mr. Adams. B affirms and 
C denies that Adams is a musician. Each knows 
Adams well, but to B and C the term "musician" 
conveys a different meaning, for B has heard only 
the crudest music, while C has heard the masters. 
The mind always determines the agreement or 
disagreement between two concepts as repre- 
sented by terms ; it tests the truth of a statement 
by comparing it with concepts acquired through 
former experience. If the statement conforms to 
standards of truth already established, it is 
judged to be true ; if it does not so conform, it is 
pronounced false. 
We are prone to pass judgment with too little 



132 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Remedy for 

faulty 

judgment. 



How the 
mind retains 
Its youth. 



knowledge of the terms that we compare, and it 
is usually those with the least knowledge who are 
the most confident of the infallibility of their 
judgment. 

The remedy for faulty judgment lies in a more 
accurate knowledge of the terms compared. Cor- 
rect thinking depends fundamentally upon clear 
perception and conception. All progress demands 
a constant growth in the number and the clear- 
ness of our concepts. 

Betts, in ''The Mind and its Education,' ' says: 
"When our concepts stop growing, our minds 
have ceased to grow — we no longer learn. This 
arrest of development is often seen in persons 
who have settled into a life of narrow routine, 
where the demands are few and of a simple 
nature. Unless they rise above their routine, they 
early become ' old fogies. ' Their concepts petrify 
from lack of use and the constant reconstruction 
which growth necessitates. On the other hand, 
the person who has upon him the constant 
demand to meet new situations, or do better in old 
ones, will keep on enriching his old concepts and 
forming new ones, or else, unable to do this, he 
will fail in his position. And the person who 
keeps on steadily enriching his concepts has dis- 
covered the secret of perpetual youth, so far as 
his mental life is concerned. For him there is no 
old age; his thought will be always fresh; his 
experience always accumulating, and his knowl- 
edge growing more valuable and usable." 

Again, judgment may be defined in terms of the 
concept by describing it as a concept with the at- 



THE PROCESS OF THINKING 133 

tention drawn to one of its features ; as, snow is 
white. This judgment may be considered as the 
decision of agreement of the concept snow and 
the abstract concept whiteness, but so intimate 
and universal is this characteristic of snow that 
whiteness becomes an essential part of the con- 
cept snow, so much so, that We do not think of 
snow without thinking of white at the same time. 

Since reasoning is founded upon judgment, just JSaJSaEt"' 
as judgment is founded upon conception, it fol- JJJJ*JJJJ 
lows that mistakes in judgments vitiate the rea- 
soning. 

Thinking is effort. Day dreaming, reveries, 
castles in the air do not draw upon the nervous 
energy, but close, accurate thinking fatigues the 
mind as muscular exertion wearies the body. Long SSfKt* 
concentrated attention to details, to the forming £Jif uestl10 
of judgments, making classifications, searching 
for similarities and differences taxes the nervous 
system greatly. The natural inertia of the mind, 
which must be overcome in order to sustain con- 
secutive thought, is the cause of the failure of so 
many to become original, independent thinkers. 
Effective thinking is done by comparatively few, 
whose opinions and findings the remainder of the 
world is content to accept. Multitudes cast their 
ballots either as their fathers did, or as they are 
led by effective, original, independent thinkers. jESSST" 011 " 
So far as their thoughts are concerned, many are SSSew. 
but echoes of the past, or of the neighboring 
mountain. The willingness of many to accept 
without thought, question, or independent investi- 
gation the unsupported statements of others, is 



134 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The credulity 
of the 
uninformed. 



The skepti- 
cism of the 
uninformed. 



Effects of 
prejudice 
upon the 
conclusion. 



demonstrated every day. A crowd will stand for 
hours around a patent medicine vendor, as he har- 
angues his listeners concerning the numerous ills 
that flesh is heir to, and expatiates upon the won- 
derful curative properties of a newly discovered 
panacea; and he will sell his wares to dozens of 
hale, hearty, healthy, robust and vigorous men, 
who in all their lives have never known an ache 
or a pain. 

The well known character of " confidence* ' man 
preys upon the innocent credulity and unsophis- 
ticated ignorance of those who have never ac- 
quired the luxury of indulging in an independent 
thought. 

The proneness to accept as true the authori- 
tative and the traditional causes skepticism 
regarding anything that is new or violative of 
belief hoary with age. Columbus was jeered by 
the rabble as he passed through the streets, 
because he was bold enough to deny the then pre- 
valent belief that the earth is flat. Galileo was 
humiliated, dismissed from the University of Pisa 
and compelled to renounce beliefs, which have 
since become the accepted knowledge of every 
school boy. 

Both our judgment and our reasoning are col- 
ored by the personal element. While education, 
including association, comradeship, travel and co- 
operative labor tends to broaden man's altruism, 
it has not yet relieved him, and probably never 
will relieve him, of prejudice and bias. 

This bias affects his judgment even against his 
will. Man can not be sure of his own conclusions, 



THE PROCESS OF THINKING 135 

when he knows that his interests, his ambitions, 
his desires, or his affections will be affected by 
his decisions. This principle is so well established 
that statutes forbid men from serving as jurors 
in a case in which they themselves are interested, 
or in which, by reason of family or business ties, 
they are even remotely concerned. 

Thinking finds results, or seeing results, looks 
for causes. A thinker once saw an apple fall, as 
thousands had seen before. Investigating the 
cause of the fall, he learned one of the secrets of 
the Creator of the Universe, how the earth, 
the moon, the sun, all the myriads of stars and .meachieve- 
planets in the galaxy of heaven, are kept in their §^£°£ 
places. Yet this simple circumstance, the train of 
thought to which it led, and the results in which 
it terminated, made the thinker famous for all 
time. A noted writer has said that "If all the 
scientists of all the ages were to meet in con- 
vention, they would elect Sir Isaac Newton chair- 
man. ' ' 

It was another thinker who first questioned the 
then generally accepted belief that the transmis- 
sion of light was instantaneous — that a light cre- 
ated anywhere was instantly visible everywhere. 
Even astronomers for centuries had believed this. 
But that light had a velocity that could be com- 
puted was conceived by the thinker Eoemer, who 
afterwards proved the truth of his contention. It 
had long been a puzzle to astronomers why the 
eclipses of Jupiter's moons always occurred later Tlie achie ve- 
when Jupiter was in opposition than when in con- Eoemer. 
junction with the sun. Roemer was convinced 



136 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The achieve. 
merit of 
Adams and 
Le Verrier. 



Inductive 
reasoning. 



that this difference of sixteen minutes and twen- 
ty-six seconds Was due to the fact that the light 
had farther to travel in one case than in the other, 
by the distance across the orbit of the earth, or 
183,000,000 miles. Basing his calculation upon 
these established facts, he computed the velocity 
of light to be 186,000 miles per second. His the- 
ory and his calculation have since been abundantly 
verified. 

Possibly the greatest achievement of the human 
mind through the process of pure thinking, un- 
aided by experiment or experience, is instanced 
in the discovery of the planet Neptune, which was 
made by applying the law that every body in the 
solar system affects the motion of every other 
body. Some time after the discovery of Uranus, 
astronomers, after taking all known causes into 
account, found there was still something, some- 
where, affecting the newly discovered planet's mo- 
tion, and this fact suggested the existence of 
another hitherto unknown planet. The question 
was, "Where is this planet, if it exists ?" Two 
different thinkers, Adams and Le Verrier, applied 
themselves independently to its solution, and both 
arrived at the same result, mathematically locat- 
ing the new planet through the sheer power of the 
intellect, and the telescope of Dr. Galle verified 
their calculations. 

Induction. — Let us suppose a savage to have 
reached maturity without any experience with 
fire, and that on a visit to a neighboring tribe he 
finds a fire burning. He places on the fire a stick 
of pine and it burns. When about to infer that all 



THE PROCESS OF THINKING 137 

substances will burn, lie observes in the fire some 
stones which have not been consumed. He then 
tries a piece of oak and finds that it burns, and 
similarly for cedar, cypress, and other varieties 
of wood. Finding they all burn, he reaches the 
conclusion that all wood will bum. 

He has reached this conclusion with respect to 
wood in general, from his experience with several 
varieties of wood. This process of reasoning 
(which consists in proceeding from the particular BeMoaJar 
to the general) is called induction. It is by no b* 1 * 1 ^.** 
means necessary that every particular be tested 
before a general conclusion is reached. If we ex- 
amine a sufficient number of individuals of a class 
and find that each possesses a certain characteris- 
tic, we are warranted in the conclusion that all 
others of the class have that characteristic. 

Deduction. — If the savage, after having arrived 
at the general law that all wood will burn, should 
afterwards be in a section of the country where 
there was no pine, or any one of the varieties of 
wood used in his orginal experiment, but in which iromtue 
fir was plentiful, he would proceed confidently to fhepartio- 
gather some of the fir wood with with to build a ular ' 
fire. His reasoning would then be in this form : 
"All wood will burn (already proved). Fir is a 
wood, therefore, fir will burn." He has then re- 
versed the first method of reasoning, and has 
proceeded from the general to the particular. 
This process of reasoning, proceeding from the 
general to the particular — is called deduction. 

Should the savage then decide to investigate the 
combustibility of rock by trying all the varieties 



138 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



easily obtained he would reach the conclusion that 
no rock will burn. Similarly he would be led to the 
broader generalization that all organic matter is 
combustible and all inorganic matter is incom- 
bustible. 

These conclusions would soon be the common 
property of all. Nobody would try to burn rock 
of any kind. Should the tribe in its wanderings 
come upon a coal field, where coal lay on the sur- 
face in abundance, none would think of trying to 
make a fire of it, because of their belief that coal 
is rock and of their previous experience that all 
rock is incombustible. If in building a fire a piece 
of coal by chance should get to the fire and burn, 
a new problem would arise. Either the general 
conclusion about rock must be modified or the coal 
be examined for classification, the solution of the 
problem resulting finally in the discovery that 
coal is organic, hence its combustibility. 

Although induction and deduction are different 
phases of thinking, they are closely related. They 
are not always distinctly separate processes. Rea- 
soning is connecting a particular and a general 
element. Its operation may take either direction. 
It may consist in arranging a number of similar 
objects into a class, or in identifying an object by 
discovering its agreement with an already estab- 
lished class. Induction discovers particular facts, 
by means of which universal laws are discovered ; 
as the universal law of gravitation was induced 
from the particular facts of falling apples. After 
the establishment and verification of the law of 
gravitation, the discovery of Neptune was accom- 



THE PROCESS OF THINKING 139 

plished, as has been stated from data discovered 
from the irregularity of the motions of Uranus. 

But there is danger in basing conclusions upon 
too limited experience. The child is usually ready 
to decide a question upon one experience. The jumpin?at 
longer the experience the more cautious one is in conclUBions - 
forming conclusions and in making general state- 
ments. Scientists are not prone (as a general 
rule) to form hasty conclusions, for they have 
learned that similarities are often accidental, and 
that it is essential to look for differences. Com- 
parison without contrast is not enough. 

Halleck says: "In some cases the examination 
of a very few instances will give a reasonably cer- 
tain conclusion. Within certain limits we may, 
roughly speaking, lay down the following guiding 
principle: Where there are logical reasons for 0uldlnjr 
the exact similarity of a new instance to others j25SS?/Jy 
already examined, we may infer the similarity a"** * 10 *- 
quite boldly, although we are familiar with but 
few individuals of that class. From the exami- 
nation of a few cases we might infer that all men 
have lungs. There is a logical necessity why this 
should prove true." 

If we should see Mr. Jones measuring the 
premises of Mr. Smith, we would not be warranted 
in the inference that Mr. Jones had bought Mr. S.a erence 
Smith's property. Seeing Mr. Jones measuring ■»«•■«<»»• 
the land merely suggests a purchase. If we knew 
previously that Mr. Smith's property was for sale, 
and also that Mr. Jones was considering its pur- 
chase, the presumption of the purchase would be 



140 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Perfect and 

Imperfect 

Inductions. 



Natural 
sciences 
"built upon 
induction. 



strengthened, but the conclusion that the sale had 
been made would still not be justified. 

Perfect and Imperfect Induction. — Induction is 
of two kinds: perfect induction when all possible 
cases have been examined, and imperfect induc- 
tion when fewer than all possible have been ex- 
amined in deriving a conclusion. As a matter of 
fact, there are very few instances in which all the 
cases can be examined, nor is an examination of 
all the cases necessary to establish a general law. 
Whenever there is "the logical reason' ' of the 
continued similarity, as explained above, the num- 
ber of cases examined may be quite limited. On 
the other hand, a great number of cases might 
be examined without reaching a correct conclu- 
sion. For example, one may reason : horses have 
lungs, cows have lungs, and so on through the 
families of goat, sheep, deer, bird, etc., and argue 
that all animals (including fishes) have lungs, 
having apparently cited many cases, when, in fact, 
he has cited only one case, that of land animals. 

The natural sciences are all built upon induc- 
tions. In none of them has the induction been per- 
fect in the sense that all possible cases have been 
used in any investigation, yet we rely as confi- 
dently upon the conclusions of science as we would 
had every case been passed in review. 

As an illustration of perfect induction, take 
from any text book on plane geometry this con- 
clusion (theorem) : 

"In the same circle, equal angles have the same 
ratio as their intercepted arcs." Note the usual 
proof. 



THE PROCESS OF THINKING 



141 



Case I. When the arcs are commensurable. 

Case II. When the arcs are incommensurable. 

The conclusion being logically established for 
each case separately, the general conclusion fol- 
lows, for commensurable arcs and incommensur- 
able arcs include all arcs. 

As a second illustration take this conclusion : 

"An inscribed angle is measured by half its in- 
tercepted arc." Note the usual proof. There are 
three cases : 



Illustration 
of perfect 
Induction. 






1. When one side of the angle is a diameter of 
the circle. 

2. When the center of the circle is within the 
angle. 

3. When the center of the circle is without the 
angle. 

The conclusion sought is then derived for each 
case separately. Therefore, it is true as a general 
proposition, for all the possible cases have been 
exhausted. 

Mathematical Induction. — A type of reasoning 
known as Mathematical Induction, or Demonstra- 
tive Reasoning, exhibits the process in a unique 
and effective way; it is also called the algebraic 
method of reasoning. In mathematics the letters 
of the alphabet are used to denote general number, 



Another Il- 
lustration of 
perfect 
Induction. 



Mathematical 
Induction. 

Demonstra- 
tive Season. 
lug". 

Algehralo 
method of 
reasoning;. 



•142 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

that is, a may be regarded as denoting any num- 
ber whatever. The same is true for b or any other 
letter or symbol. 

As an example, then, by actual multiplication of 
a -j- b by itself, we have a 2 -j- 2 a b + & 2 > that is, 
the square of the sum of a and b is the square of a 
plus twice the product of a and b plus the square 
of b. 

But a and b represent any numbers whatever, 
therefore, the square of the sum of any two num- 
bers is the square of the first plus twice the prod- 
uct of the first by the second plus the square of 
the second. Similarly 

(a -f b) 3 = a s + 3 a 2 b + 3 ab 2 + b s 
may be translated for any two numbers whatever. 

This type of reasoning, its soundness and sim- 
plicity, freedom from entanglement with irrele- 
vant matter in the course of a lengthy investiga- 
tion, combined with its terseness of expression as 
exhibited in its numerous formulas, makes mathe- 
matics the powerful instrument for investigation 
that renders it indispensable to the study of every 
other science. 

Geometric Reasoning. — The best illustration of 
pure deduction is exhibited also in the demonstra- 
tion of a geometrical theorem. This type is called 
geometric reasoning. 

As an illustration, study the form— wording 
and all — of a typical demonstration. For ex- 
ample, the well known statement, "The sum of the 
angles of a triangle is a straight angle." 




THE PROCESS OF THINKING 143 

The process of rea- c 

soning begins with, 
"Let A B C be any I \ innitwMjm- 

17 / ^v of {feometric 

triangle," referring / \ reasoning 

always to the figure 
of a triangle pre- 
sented with the rest of the argument. Now, 
let us understand what any triangle means. 
There are several kinds of triangles. With respect 
to the equality or inequality of their sides, tri- 
angles are classified as scalene and isosceles (the 
equilateral is a special kind of isosceles triangle) 
and with respect to the size of its angles they are 
classified as acute, right, and obtuse. Now, how 
can the triangle ABC represent any triangle, 
when there are so many particular cases of the 
triangle 2 How does it become a typical triangle, 
a general triangle, including all the classes of tri- 
angles? How will the proof about the angles of 
this triangle establish a property of all kinds of 
triangles f 

By studying the process of reasoning in deriv- 
ing the conclusion it is seen that only those prop- 
erties are brought into the discussion that belong 
to all kinds of triangles. No mention is made of 
the length of sides or size of angles. "Sides" and 
"angles" are mentioned, but all kinds of triangles 
have sides and angles. Each kind has just three 
sides and just three angles, and the conclusion in- JSSSm. 
eludes all plane figures that have just three sides 
and just three angles, irrespective of their relative 
length or size, and irrespective of the size or the 
shape of the triangle ; therefore, the figure given, 



144 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

by ignoring every property not common to every 
kind or class of triangle, becomes a universal tri- 
angle, and what is proved concerning it is proved 
for every triangle regardless of its kind. 



CHAPTER XH 

TEACHING PUPILS TO THINK 

One of the greatest problems of the school is to 
train the pupils to think. Every successful busi- 
ness or professional man is a good inductive rea- 
soner. The successful salesman has learned from 
experience how to approach a customer, how to 
read human nature in its special guises and under 
variable conditions. The successful merchant has 
learned to foresee the wants of his customers. In 
his mind he has tabulated his experiences, and has 
derived a conclusion concerning the trend of fash- 
ion for the coming season. The successful physi- successful 
cian has learned to diagnose symptoms, to detect Sauctive 
pathological conditions. The successful lawyer re *" 0,Ier *- 
has learned through induction to detect the "will- 
ing" witness, to discover motive, and to read the 
human physiognomy. He has learned inductively 
what type of man is safest for the defendant on 
the jury trying his client on the charge of mur- 
der, theft, or arson. He has learned that in select- 
ing a jury, the past experience of the talisman 
exerts a determining influence upon his opinion in 
spite of law, testimony, or instruction of the court. 
He has learned, or he does learn by examination 
of the juror, whether he is controlled by judgment 
or by sentiment, by testimony or by prejudice. 

So much in the actualities of life rests upon the 



146 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Important to 
train pupils 
to think. 



To do thing's 
well requires 
hahit of 
doing 1 one's 
hest. 



Minute atten- 
tion to details 
a method of 
training 1 to 

think. 



power to think — to think accurately, quickly, in- 
cisively — that the training of pupils to think is an 
important function of the school. 

How may pupils be taught to think? This ques- 
tion can not be answered by formula, recipe, or de- 
vice. Besides, if such answer were possible, it 
would be foreign to the purpose of this work. Such 
answer would stultify the writer and vitiate his 
purpose, that of leading the readers, themselves, 
to think. Devices, like prescriptions, are applica- 
ble only to special conditions; principles, though 
their application must ever depend upon individ- 
ual intelligence, originality, and initiative, are 
general in their application. 

If there is any merit in the doctrine of "Learn 
to do by doing," the question might be answered 
by saying " learn to think by thinking." But one 
does not always "learn to do by doing." His 
learning to do depends upon how he did while he 
was doing. Sometimes one renders it very diffi- 
cult to learn to do a thing by having been so long 
in doing the thing the wrong way. 

Since thinking is the operation of the faculties 
of the mind, the proper exercise of the faculties 
is to cultivate the power of thinking. The first 
care of the teacher should be to train the pupil to 
perceive — to observe carefully. 

Effective observation, that is the kind of obser- 
vation that gives training and education, is not 
general or casual, but consists in careful, minute, 
attention to details, to small distinctions and dif- 
ferences. Instead of observing flowers, it ob- 
serves .one flower — its petals, its pistils, its stam- 



TEACHING PUPILS TO THINK 147 

ens, its roots, and finally, the whole flower. It 
involves long sustained attention. The scientist 
is a careful, painstaking observer of seemingly 
trifling details. The medical student, preparing to 
treat the diseases of the human body, first learns 
the body by dissecting it. He traces every nerve, 
vein, artery, ligament, critically and studies the 
functions of every bone, organ, and muscle. 

Instead of demanding that the pupil observe 
many things, the teacher should require him to ob- 
serve a few things well. Instead of asking him to 
tell all about everything he saw on the road to 
and from school, during a certain week, the 
teacher should ask him to describe minutely one 
object that he saw on the road to school to-day. 

The attempt to take into the mind too many 
things at once tends to dissipate its energies and 
to impair its perception. 

Children can be trained to think by bringing 
them into contact with something new. Excur- New object* 
sions to field and forest, in charge of one who thought, 
guides their attention and asks only pertinent 
questions, is a good method of cultivating thought. 

If the object of such excursion is simply recrea- 
tion and relaxation, the observation should be 
turned loose to run at will. An excursion of this JJ«mSob«. 
kind is greatly educational in its way, but if the 
purpose is the cultivation of thinking, it should be 
more definitely planned. The class taken should 
not be large ; the objects observed should be few, 
and the attention should be focused upon these 
few until something definite and certain about 
them has been learned. This kind of observation 



148 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Good o"beerva- 
tlon require* 
power of at- 
tention. 



One thing 1 to 
be under, 
taken at a 
time. 



Students 
often engage 
In too many 
aotivitiee. 



requires highly developed power of attention, the 
power to take the mind away from distracting 
noises and concentrate it upon one object to the 
exclusion for the time of all else. This kind of at- 
tention is secured only through interest — without 
interest, attention soon flags, and without atten- 
tion clear perception and thinking are impossible. 
A great problem for the teacher, then, is to invest 
all the processes of study with interest. 

Too many things should not be undertaken at a 
time. Common sense in business affairs teaches 
this. A man could not reasonably expect to con- 
duct successfully at the same time a mercantile 
business, a railroad, and a bank. No one now 
undertakes to prepare for the practice of dentis- 
try, medicine, and law. 

The cases in history, in which one man has be- 
come eminent in more than one line, as Michael 
Angelo did, are so rare that they merely prove the 
rule by being the exceptions. 

The high school or the college student should 
not neglect the social side of life while in school. 
He should remember that in after years he must 
live and deal with men. But too frequently he 
engages in too many activities for his own good. 
With all the phases of athletics, baseball, football, 
and tennis, with his literary societies, debates and 
musical organizations, not to mention the numer- 
ous social functions, he has little time left for 
consecutive, independent thinking. 

The best thinking is done in solitude. All the 
discoveries and inventions to which our civiliza- 



TEACHING PUPILS TO THINK 149 

tion is so much indebted, have been solved from Best thinking- 
brains that had shut out everything except those ■outude. 
which pertained strictly to the solution of the 
problem in mind. 

By securing quietude and freedom from distrac- 
tion, the teacher should begin early to cultivate 
in the child the habit of quiet thought. It is true 
that the ability to think on one's feet is a desir- 
able accomplishment, and the pupil has the oppor- 
tunity of acquiring it in the well conducted recita- 
tion ; but the ability to think in solitude, to com- 
mune with one's self, with God, and with nat- 
ure, without the inspiration of the crowd, is by far 



the more valuable attainment. One who has long amen extern- 

-...••jii poraneous 

been accustomed to "talking" in the class-room, evening a*- 

„ , , n ■• t creates arm- 

speaking to meetings of teachers, or other public ^ g g*J£* 
gatherings, and has fallen into the habit of mak- 
ing extemporaneous addresses, learns, to his re- 
gret, that thereby he has decreased his ability to 
sit in the quietude of his room and think. 

While the purely concrete should be presented 
to young children in teaching them to think, the 
presentation to them of abstract relations should gUf^! lon 
not be long delayed. They must eventually learn EPS ST" 
to deal with abstract concepts, and the teacher errs lon * a* 1 ** 04 - 
who decides that young children can comprehend 
only the physically tangible. 

Lessons assigned should not be too long or too 
difficult. The teacher must learn how long the 
child at his stage of life can sustain concentrated g""Sft #of 
attention. If the lesson is too difficult, if it pre- p«>per length. 
sents insurmountable obstacles to the pupil's 
mind, he quits discouraged, and without desire to 



150 



PKIXCIPLES AXD PKOCES8E3 



What the 
teacher should 
do for the 

pupil. 



Iilf e topic In 
the lesson. 



undertake another. Repetition of this error 
causes a mental surrender, takes away the spirit, 
just as courage forsakes the army that is always 
vanquished. On the other hand, the work should 
not be too easy. It should call forth effort, for 
without real effort there is no thinking. A regi- 
ment of soldiers feels no elation in capturing or 
routing a solitary sentinel. So the pupil derives 
no pleasure from solving a "too easy" problem. 

The teacher may do too much or too little to 
enourage thinking. How much ought the teacher 
to do ? That question demands the answer of the 
teacher. His ability or inability to determine that, 
stamps him as an efficient or inefficient teacher. 

As a general proposition, he should do enough 
to help the student over difficulties insurmountable 
by the student, and to direct him over those the 
surmounting of which unaided would require time 
that might be more wisely and profitably spent. 

The teacher should never do so much that the 
student is made to feel that he, himself, has done 
little. The child's mind delights in discovery and 
achievement. Listen to the tone of his voice as 
he says, "See what I did by myself!" The ring 
of triumph is in it. 

The teacher may incite or may kill thinking by 
the manner of assigning the lesson. In the assign- 
ment enough ought to be said to arouse the inter- 
est of the student. Some life topic ought to be 
the central point of every assignment. The 
teacher ought not to tell all that there is in the 
lesson, and how to find it, for the child delights 
in finding things for himself. Until he has been 



TEACHING PUPILS TO THINK 151 

subdued by the methods of the school that reduce 
him to acquiescence in authority, every child is a 
young Columbus, a Herschel, or a Newton. 

The teacher must give the pupil time to think. JJSS ^Jo 11 * 
Short preparation periods, hurried recitation tf* 16 *> «»*»*■ 
periods, make thinking difficult, if not impossible. 
A certain part of every recitation period, it is true, 
should be devoted to rinding out if the pupil has 
prepared the lesson, but another part should be 
devoted to the pupil's expression of independent 
thought on the lesson. 

By judicious questioning the teacher may call 
forth the powers of correlation, abstraction, etc. 
In general, leading questions — those that can be 
answered affirmatively or negatively — call for 
neither originality nor thinking on the part of the 
pupil. 

Language is a considerable element of thinking. langiiap 
A reaction has set in against the old method of tammng. 
teaching, in which memory training and acquies- 
cence in authority were the chief elements, and in 
which pupils were taught words without reference 
to their meaning. The cry has gone out against 
"words before ideas" and for "ideas before 
words.' ' In trying to avoid the error of the old 
way, there is danger of going to the other extreme. 
Dickens says, "Our vices are but virtues carried 
to excess." 

The name of an object, so far as it is an object The name of 
of thought, is an essential characteristic. Names becomes a 
are not meaningless, unless disassociated from ob- c arac 
jects. Dewey calls attention to the fact that the 
mind deals with meanings as well as with objects. 



152 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Pupil'B 

-Name. 



Word« with 
Ideas. 



Iianffuag-e a 
meant of 
thinking. 



"Every one," he says, "has experienced how 
learning an appropriate name for what was dim 
and vague cleared np and crystallized the whole 
matter. ' ' "When a child sees anything that is new 
he asks at once, "What is it? " The mere naming 
of the object adds to it in his mind a new charac- 
teristic, A little reflection will convince a man 
that he can not only talk more intelligently but 
that he can think more intelligently about an ob- 
ject or a person whose name he knows. 

The teacher learns the characteristics of the pu- 
pil more quickly if he learns his name. Experi- 
ence in handling large numbers of students has 
proved how much easier it is to study the qualities 
of an individual if one knows his name. Common 
practice regards this principle. One introduces 
Mr. Jones to Mr. Johnson; he does not present a 
gentleman to another gentleman. The name and 
the face are presented together. The presentation 
of two persons to each other over the telephone 
would not be less ridiculous. Instead of "words 
before ideas" or "ideas before words" let it be 
"words with ideas," or "ideas with words." No 
one ever catches many "fish." The novice tries, 
but the experienced fisherman fishes for perch, 
trout, or bass. 

Language may be used in training to think. 
Fine discrimination between synonyms, close at- 
tention to forms of expression, is a valuable men- 
tal exercise. Loose and careless expressions beget 
careless and inaccurate thinking. The teacher 
should insist upon the pupil's use, both in speak- 
ing and writing, of words that convey exact mean- 



TEACHING PUPILS TO THINK 153 

ing. All colleges agree that the greatest weakness 
in their matriculates is in the proper use of words. 
And the tragedy of the whole thing is their failure 
to realize that the method of expressing thought 
has any vital connection with the thought itself. 

Not so often as to make it burdensome, the stu- g2£S££ 
dent should be required to present themes, essays, J^*g* ,t8 
or compositions, for the sole purpose of provoking £j » p c £EE* L 
thought. These should be judged by the teacher 
solely on the basis of originality of ideas and accu- 
racy of expression. One who expresses a thought 
in a weak, disconnected manner needs training in 
thinking about meanings. 

Original and independent thinkers are rare. 
They have always been rare. The greatest prob- 
lem of the school is to increase their number. 
Morgan says, "The universe of matter is an expo- 
sition of God's thought. Man's highest preroga- 
tive is to think over again God's thoughts ; their 
re-statement is man's science and philosophy." 



CHAPTER XIII 



THE LESSON 



I. THE LESSON ASSIGNMENT 



The divisions 
of the lesson. 



The lesson 
affords oppor- 
tunity for 
close personal 
acquaint- 
ance. 



The lesson in its broadest sense, includes the 
Assignment, the Preparation, and the Recitation. 
It presents the most interesting and important of 
all problems in education, and provides the great- 
est opportunity for that close personal contact of 
the teacher and the pupil that enables mind to in- 
fluence mind. Every activity in every phase of 
education is important. Much may be done to en- 
rich old conceptions and stimulate new ambitions 
through association in various ways — through 
the student activities, through social intercourse 
on the play-ground, and through the period of 
opening exercises of the day. Each of these agen- 
cies needs to be strengthened, encouraged, and 
intelligently directed. The wholesome effect of 
athletics is no longer questioned, nor is the in- 
spiration and the uplifting influence of the chapel 
period in the least doubted. But it is through The 
Lesson that the best opportunity is afforded for 
the close personal touch of mind with mind by 
which hidden ambitions are disclosed, life plans 
unfolded, latent talents discovered, and visions of 
the higher life revealed. 

It is said that "The greatest thing in the world 



THE LESSON 155 

is a human life ; the greatest work in the world, 
a helpful touch upon that. life." Such is the op- J °™££°? er 
portunity given both to the teacher and to the stu- JJJJftgJ 
dent in the lesson. It is there more than any- 
where else in the process of teaching that the 
foundation for character is laid. And it must not 
be forgotten that the building of character is the 
main purpose of the school. The opportunities 
afforded by the lesson carry with them commen- 
surate responsibilities ; therefore, a close study of 
each phase of the lesson problem is imperative, in 
order that the teacher may meet these responsi- 
bilities. 

The Lesson, as has been stated, consists of three Tne three 
distinct phases: (1) The Lesson Assignment ; reoltatioo. 
(2) The Lesson Preparation, or The Lesson 
Study; and (3) The Eecitation. These three di- 
visions will be considered separately. 

The Lesson Assignment. — In order that the JJ^ rst 
class as a whole and each individual member 
thereof may be prepared to attack intelligently 
the lesson problem presented, certain definite 
principles should be observed in each assignment. 

In the beginning, the teacher should understand ^£™or 
fully the use of the term Lesson Assignment, and lesson unit, 
should know how to formulate a plan of procedure 
in accordance with the broadest interpretation of 
its meaning. To assign a lesson is to designate 
some definite lesson problem, whether this be a The learning- 
problem in science, in literature, or in history, presses, 
upon which the student is required to employ all 
of the learning processes, that is, acquisition, as- 
similation, and expression. 



156 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Tli© teacher 
should have 
comprehen- 
sive knowl- 
edge. 



Incorrect 
Ideas of les- 
son assign- 
ment. 



A comprehensive knowledge of the subject as a 
whole, of the text book used, and of all available 
collateral material, will aid the teacher in stimu- 
lating the interest of the pupil, and in creating an 
atmosphere of pleasure and enthusiasm in the 
entire class. Familiarity with the subject and its 
difficulties, and a keen insight into the capacity of 
the class and its needs sufficient to assign a lesson 
intelligently, command the respect of the pupils 
and inspire their confidence in the teacher's 
ability. 

A weakness in the work of many teachers is that 
of either ignoring or unconsciously disregarding 
the vital relation sustained by each lesson problem 
to the one immediately preceding it and the one 
succeeding it. It is not infrequently the case that 
the lesson for the day has been determined solely 
by dividing the number of pages contained in the 
text book by the possible number of lesson periods 
to be given to the x subject. An equally serious de- 
fect, and one as prevalent in teaching, is the fail- 
ure to consider the relation sustained by the les- 
son problem of one subject to that of other 
subjects in the curriculum. Such careless assign- 
ments result in unbalanced lessons, and their 
effect upon the pupil is unbalanced effort. At one 
time he is heavily overtaxed ; while at another he 
finds his task mere child's play. To the irrational 
assignment of the lesson may be traced much of 
the dissatisfaction and discouragement that some- 
times beset the strongest member of the class. 

Method of Lesson Assignment. — The method 
which should be followed in the assignment of les- 



THE LESSON 157 

sons may be stated as follows : Assign lesson ^* u \^ n 
problems to a class by subjects; then, if necessary, g£jfyj|gj* 
state the pages of the text which treat the subject. 
The term subject is preferable to the term topic. 
Subject suggests more, and avoids confusion. 
Many experienced teachers interpret the term 
topic to signify the heading of paragraphs as 
given in the text books. It is not unusual for the 
teacher to announce hurriedly, with comparatively 
little or no forethought, as a lesson merely some 
definite number of pages or paragraphs. "For 
the next lesson, take the next twenty pages," 
"Take the next ten paragraphs," "Take down to 
the bottom of page sixty," "Take the next fifteen 
problems," are lesson assignments not unfamiliar 
to students in many schools of the present day. 

The subject of the lesson problem and the aim The subject 
of the problem should not be confused. The sub- o? theiessoa. 
ject is the statement or title of the problem; the 
aim is the dominant motive for study. In each 
lesson problem a twofold aim is to be considered, 
that of the teacher and that of the student. The 
teacher's aim comprehends the larger and more 
general purpose of the lesson, while the student's 
aim is necessarily concrete and limited. For ex- 
ample, the subject of a lesson problem in Reading 
as assigned may be Eugene Field's "Wynken 
Blynken, and Nod." 

Teacher's Aim: To help the children to appre- The teacher'* 
eiate the beauty of the poem, and to enjoy a lull- a 
aby in poetry as well as in music. 

Student's Aim: To read and enjoy a lullaby Jg* ■*»<!»»*■ 
in poetry. 



158 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Definite 
statement 
of the lesson 
problem. 



In order that the student may grasp easily and 
readily the significance of the lesson problem, and 
be inspired to begin his task with the interest that 
insures success, the statement of the problem and 
its aims must be ' ' clear, definite, short, and attrac- 
tive.' ' Lack of clearness and definiteness in les- 
son assignment has been frequently the cause of 
a serious crisis both in the work of the class and 
in the discipline of the room. Not only does the 
pupil fail to accomplish his task, but he becomes 
careless and inattentive, and often discouragred. 
The result is no less disastrous when, for any rea- 
son, the lesson subject fails to arouse the interest 
necessary to stimulate effort. It may occur that 
just at a crucial point when the pupil might easily 
be charged with a burning desire to know more of 
his subject, a cold, mechanical statement of the les- 
son problem may cool the ardor and enthusiasm 
which he already felt. 

The use of the subject method of lesson assign- 
ment, as indicated in the outset, does not forbid all 
reference to pages and paragraphs. A student 
trained to rely upon the page or the paragraph 
may find difficulty at first in keeping in mind his 
specific lesson problem, and reference to page and 
paragraph may be of much assistance to him. 
Again, the teacher may wish to lay special 
emphasis upon some important principle or fact 
or some unusual viewpoint advanced by a partic- 
ular author. Information as to the page and para- 
graph in which the material may be found saves 
the time and conserves the energy of the student. 

The advantages of assigning a specific problem 



THE LESSON 159 

to a class, rather than following the time-worn cus- 
tom of designating a definite number or pages or 
of paragraphs, specifically enumerating each, ^^JJgfT 
seem self-evident, yet a contrast between the two jgjgjj^ 
methods may prove valuable. A lesson problem 
assigned with clearly stated subject and aim fur- 
nishes the student a definite lesson idea which 
attracts and holds his attention. When it is as- 
signed by pages and paragraphs, there is nothing 
to engage his attention but mechanical facts and 
barren symbols, which limit his investigation to 
one text book, and circumscribe his point of view 
to that of a single author. It is safe to add that XtaK!?*" 
in such case further research beyond the text book 
used as a basis of the work would be made by very 
few. On the other hand, the assignment of a les- 
son problem furnishes an excellent opportunity 
for the use of supplementary material, which adds 
zest to the study of the lesson assigned. Each stu- 
dent is then free to do the minimum of work 
required, or to attempt personal explorations into 
new fields for the discovery of new facts. A whole 
kingdom of knowledge and truth opens before him, 
and he realizes that it may be his through individ- 
ual effort. The feeding instinct, hitherto active 
only in satisfying physical wants, becomes a pow- 
erful force that compels earnest search for truth 
for the gratification of mental hunger. By this The subject 
plan an entirely new standard is presented to the gi^l'min? 8 
student. He must do the required minimum of J^SiSj* 
work. He may do the maximum of his individual ^° r a *S. rthe 
capacity. This standard for the student solves at 
once for the teacher that most vexing problem of 



160 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The subject 
plan provides 
for home 
work. 



Other prob- 
lems provided 
for. 



Connection of 
home and 

school. 



adapting the lesson to the class so that while 
ample provision is made both for the slow or poor- 
ly prepared pupil, and also for the bright, en- 
ergetic student, so that he does not lose interest 
for want of work. To such a student the home, 
and the community also, furnish opportunities 
both for the gaining of knowledge material and 
for its application. 

This plan provides for Home "Work, that much 
debated question. Home work, it should be under- 
stood, however, does not mean necessarily the so- 
lution of problems in arithmetic, the learning of 
facts in history, or the mechanical reproduction of 
matter in reading. It is that phase of supplemen- 
tary work in which the home and the school are 
brought into close connection. The study of the 
social viewpoint of church and society, of govern- 
ment and society, of business and society, has pen- 
etrated the almost petrified ideals of education 
and its purposes, and radically changed both the 
methods of instruction and the perspective of the 
student. A new note has sounded, and the prob- 
lem of " school and society " has become an im- 
portant member of the social study group. 

Parent and Teachers' Associations, Mothers' 
Clubs, and Fathers' Clubs, for the study of child 
nature and child needs, the introduction of the in- 
dustrial and manual arts into the courses of study, 
and the maintaining of night schools and all-year 
round schools, are the outgrowths of this new view 
point of the school as a real life experience. It is 
an important part of the school problem to con- 
nect the home and the school in such a manner 



THE LESSON 161 

that the student himself will feel this vital rela- 
tion. 

The perspective of the student of the present 
day is entirely different from that of the student 
of the past. He no longer thinks that he will some New per. 
day have need of the knowledge he is getting. He the student, 
feels that he is learning, is enjoying, and is using 
each day every lesson he learns. "The present 
use" theory permeates the entire realm of school 
activities. Vague "school-room" ideas are dis- 
carded, and the present realization of the truths 
presented is emphasized. Book facts and rules 
are replaced by problems of home and life ; those 
relating to the production and consumption of 
food supplies, to the distribution and expenditure 
of money, to the justice or injustice of laws gov- 
erning social life. Through these, the student de- 
velops an appreciation of the genuineness of 
knowledge, and the value of its possession. Thus jSSSSS* 
the school becomes his natural business center SwSSSi 1 
or laboratory, where he may go to work out his 
individual problems, while his home becomes the 
great store house which supplies the necessary 
materials for his lesson problems and opportuni- 
ties for their application. As a result, the student 
feels not only that he should work or must work, 
but that he may work. 

Application of the Method. — In its practical 
application, the method of assigning lesson prob- 
lems to students may be adapted to suit all con- 
ditions of the school. A seeming difficulty in the 
use of this method in some subjects, especially in Tbm Bearolty 
the lower grades, is the scarcity of material and of™*** 1 * 1 - 



162 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The large 
problem 
first: its 
subdivisions 
next. 



The teacher 
must find 
material. 



the absence of definitely stated lesson subjects in 
the great majority of text books used. A second 
probable difficulty is that the problem, as often 
stated, involves elements too vague or too difficult 
for the particular class. A simple solution of the 
first difficulty is for the teacher to state the lesson 
subjects with the subdivisions necessary to make 
the aim of each conform to the needs of the par- 
ticular class group ; in assigning lesson problems 
in which there are several subdivisions, to state in 
the first assignment the large lesson problem, and 
then assign from day to day each subdivision of 
the work. 

Teachers of the primary grades, more than 
those of other classes, are confronted with the 
task not only of developing subjects and aims in 
the lesson assigned for their pupils, but that of 
providing practically all the material needed. For 
these grades are found very few texts that furnish 
enough material suited to the needs of the child. 
However, there is always an abundance of mate- 
rial for the teacher who is willing to pay the price 
of individual effort in collecting and classify- 
ing it. 

The following lesson problems are illustrative : 
for a reading lesson on Home Life, "My Pets;" 
for a Nature Study lesson on Home Life, "Hoiv 
we grow our vegetables." The sources of the ma- 
terial are abundant in the child's experiences, 
from which the teacher may develop her subject 
matter. Most of the text books used in the inter- 
mediate grades have lesson problems definitely 
stated. The greatest difficulty is probably found 



THE LESSON 163 

in the subjects of spelling, geography, and arith- 
metic. To rise this method of assignment in spell- 
ing, it is necessary to group or classify the words 
as convenience or use may suggest ; that is, if the 
text book used has only a miscellaneous collection 
of words indiscriminately compiled, the words 
may be classified as "home words," "simple S&ffiK? 
words," "words ending in" er, etc. It is neces- J5JS£" t - 
sary also to divide the text book into sections, SgKSSJ 
either by groups of pages or groups of exercises, subjects, 
suited to the particular class group. Such a 
grouping necessitates much previous preparation 
by the teacher, and such an assignment would re- 
quire careful study and selection on the part of 
the student. For example, a lesson in spelling may 
be stated thus : "Select from Section A all words spelling-, 
relating to home ; from Section C, all words relat- 
ing to business." 

The use of this method in Geography and Arith- 
metic may appear at first impracticable, as the 
subdivisions of the larger groups do not seem to 
be clearly enough defined and sufficiently distin- 
guished to furnish the definite lesson problem. 
Upon closer study, however, it is found to be as 
practicable in these as in the other subjects of the 
course. For example : 

In Geography — The Cultivation of Cotton in Geography, 
the South. Student assignment : "TheManufac- 
facturing Industry of Cotton Goods." 

In Arithmetic — Lesson Study, "Interest and the Arithmetic, 
legal rate." Student's Problem: "Which is a 
better investment, to purchase a house and lot for 
$5,000, or to rent the same property at $40 per 



164 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Principles 
for lesson 

assignment. 



Rules for 
assignment 
of the lesson 



month, money being worth 10 per cent per an- 
num?" 

Rules for Lesson Assignment. — In assigning a 
lesson problem a serious question is, How much 
explanation shall be given to the student in order 
that he may begin his task with understanding 
and confidence ? He must know something of the 
goal which he is seeking, and the necessary means 
by which he may attain it. The problem is how 
much to give, and still not give too much. Often 
a teacher, through elaborate explanations and 
enumeration of details, suggests that some para- 
graphs are important, some difficult, and some 
non-essential, before the student himself has had 
a chance for choice. By doing this the teacher 
dulls rather than whets the student's curiosity, 
and leaves little for him to do. The process of 
thought involves observation and comparison, se- 
lection and choice. The student should have the 
chance to weigh and consider, select and use. 
Only in this manner can there be any real mental 
growth for the student. He must " learn to do by 
doing." 

Some excellent rules to be observed in explain- 
ing a lesson problem are these : 

1. Give only such explanations on the new les- 
son as will stimulate the student to personal 
research. 

2. Do nothing for the student that he can do 
for himself without necessary waste of time. 

3. State the problem and its aim briefly, yet 
clearly. Leave the student to interpret it. 



THE LESSON 165 

4. See that the student understands his aim, 
and is conscious that it is his. 

5. Give definite references for supplementary 
•work, yet leave latitude for the student's own ef- 
forts in collecting additional material. 

One of the faults of youth is inability to dis- 
criminate either in thought or in action. Ques- 
tion the average student of the present day on the 
more serious of our current problems, whether 
commercial, social, political, or religious, and the 
dearth of individual thought and personal opinion 
is surprising. Upon whom shall censure for this 
weakness be placed? Surely, not upon the student 
entirely. It belongs in some measure to the time- | ^SaSJ"' 
worn custom of the teacher's posing too much as 
authority, allowing himself to be regarded by the 
students as the ultimate source of information. 
The practice of explaining in the lesson assign- 
ment much that the student should work out for 
himself, is one of the serious defects of teaching 
in this manner. A habit is cultivated by the stu- 
dent of either consciously or unconsciously de- 
pending upon some one else to do his task, and of 
expecting his own negligence to be overlooked or 
excused. 

Some reading teachers give in the lesson assign- 
ment the pronunciation of all new words, and thus 
prevent the student from feeling the need of the 
study of pronunciation. It is no more the duty of 
the teacher to give the pupil the pronunciation of 
the words in his reading, than it is to furnish him 
the solution of the problems in arithmetic. This 
false notion of helpfulness is not confined to the 



166 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Pupils should 
he trained 
to independ- 
ence. 



Proper time 
for the lesson 
assignment. 



Time of as- 
aignmerit da- 
pendent upon 
nature of the 
lesson. 



teaching of reading, language and spelling, but it 
is found among teachers of all branches of study. 
Every means should be employed to correct in stu- 
dents the habit of careless dependence, and in 
teachers the tendency to encourage it. 

The Time for the Assignment of the Lesson. — 
The time for making the lesson assignment should 
be carefully considered. Some conditions make it 
preferable to assign the next lesson-subject at the 
beginning of the period, others at the close ; while 
in still other cases, it is a matter of little conse- 
quence when the assignment is made. If a new 
subject or a new division of work is to be under- 
taken, the assignment should be made at the be- 
ginning of the period. Needed explanations of the 
subject and of its relations to the work previously 
completed should be given at length and stated 
clearly, when the mind of the student is fresh and 
in a receptive state. Again, if the lesson to be as- 
signed enriches and completes the lesson of the 
day, the proper time for assignment is at the be- 
ginning of the period, even though it may necessi- 
tate taking some time from the discussion of the 
day's problem. The use of supplementary texts, 
magazines, and other material, has become almost 
a necessity. The value of these is greatly in- 
creased by definite instruction as to their use ; and 
as this instruction requires both time and thought, 
it can be given to the best advantage at the begin- 
ning of the period. 

In many cases, the problem of how to study is 
much more serious than the problem of what to 
study ; and this, too, must be considered in the as- 



THE LESSON 167 

signment. When this condition is evident, the 
needed instruction should not be delayed until the 
end of the period, for it is of great importance that 
the student be taught how to approach his task. 
It may be that he is attacking his problem by the 
so-called "Muscular Method, " and wasting much 
time at his task. He may be attempting merely to 
memorize the truths withoat grasping their sig- 
nificance. Into whatever error he may have fallen, 
he is in need of help. Tbe teacher must be able 
to utilize his own experience and knowledge of 
mental processes in order to appreciate the stu- 
dent's difficulty, and to direct him in the develop- 
ment of keener perception and a more vivid imag- 
ination. It is here revealed that the teacher must 
possess both knowledge and training. He must 
know his subject well. He must know the opinions 
of the best authorities on the subject he teaches, -me teacher's 
and he must have an opinion himself. He must taowieaee 
know the particular reason his subject is offered aadtrainin? - 
in the learning process, whether for the develop- 
ment of judgment, memory, feeling, or will. He 
must know, too, something of the general life prob- 
lems, and be a man among men. Above all, he 
must know the mind of the student, and be able to 
give the needed help at the needed time. A 
teacher so equipped will realize that correct as- 
signment is as important for wholesome mental 
growth as the administering of proper drugs to 
relieve physical ills ; and when occasion demands, 
he will take the time necessary to give instruction 
as to how the student may expend his energy to 
the best advantage. 



168 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

Sometimes there are reasons for deferring the 
assignment to the close of the recitation period. 
The lesson problem may be a continuation of a 
larger lesson group which does not need addi- 
tional explanation by the teacher, and the time 
may be needed for the study of the lesson prob- 
lem previously assigned. This, however, rarely 
occurs under ordinary conditions. 

Again, the lesson of the day may furnish a basis 
for a better understanding of the one succeeding. 
In this case, time for assignment should be allowed 
at the end of the period. A teacher should always 
remember, however, that a recitation period, 
whether in a well regulated school system or a 
small one-teacher rural school should end at a 
fixed time. 

Disregard of promptness and punctuality in this 
particular encourages irregularity on the part of 
the pupil towards his own obligations and respon- 
sibilities. The teacher should, therefore, allow 
the assignment of the lesson before the time to 
close the recitation. 

If none of the above mentioned conditions exist, 
the lesson assignment may be made at the discre- 
cretion or convenience of the teacher. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE LESSON CONTINUED 

II. THE LESSON PREPARATION 

The second of the three divisions of the Les- 
son — The Lesson Preparation or Lesson Study — 
involves the whole problem of the art of study, me second 
For the student it is a question of "How to tScMn*. 
Study," while for the teacher it is a problem both 
of "How to Study" and of "Teaching How to 
Study." Each of these is a problem of great diffi- 
culty and great significance. 

Very little attention has been given to the real 
art of study. Few books have been written on the 
subject, and very little time has been given to its 
problems. Discussions of this phase of the learn- 
ing process and directions as to its practice have 
been for the most part limited to the negative side 
—"How not to Study." 

Incorrect Methods of Study. — There are many 
methods of study. The Chinese custom in which 
students line themselves around the room, face to 
the wall, and repeat the exercises verbatim in the Jfudy? a " of 
highest pitch of voice, does not seem far removed 
in its crudeness from the audible whisper and lip 
movement used in study by students in many of 
our American schools. Parallel with these meth- 



170 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Elomory 
methods. 



Mental loaf. 
tag. 



Buperflolal 

study. 



ods is the plan of going over and over again five, 
six, or more times, the prescribed lesson, depend- 
ing upon mere repetition and memory to fix knowl- 
edge. The number of times one has repeatedly 
"gone over the lesson w or the number of hours 
he has devoted to it, indicates little as to the 
amount of study he has given it. The learning 
processes are mental, not physical. The term 
"muscular method" already referred to, seems 
particularly appropriate to these ridiculous ef- 
forts at study. 

The attempt is often made to study when the 
mind is in a state of passive attention, listless and 
inactive. In this condition of mind, the student, 
even though able to repeat the words of the text 
and to give explanations of the problems involved, 
loses practically all the kernel of the truth, for he 
can be only partially attentive to the work in 
hand. The effect of this kind of study is most 
hazardous. Mental loafing is detrimental to char- 
acter ; there is nothing which more surely destroys 
mental vigor and moral strength. Some of the 
results of this method of study are indecision, in- 
difference, superficialty, and general inefficiency. 

Probably the most common of all methods of 
study is that of mere memorizing. The student 
who habitually follows this plan fails to compre- 
hend the difference between information and 
knowledge. He fails to see that facts within 
themselves are valueless. Histories, encyclo- 
pedias, and dictionaries are compendiums of facts, 
but they are cold, lifeless words unless spirit is 
breathed into them by the individual reader. 
There is no magic power in mere words, and the 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 



171 



student trained by this memory method has little 
besides words as the result of his effort. He 
knows some words and a few facts, which are mere 
skeletons of knowledge, and these he may repeat 
in a parrot-like manner, but he lacks the power 
to think, to feel, and to do. His stock of ideas is 
pitifully small. The reason for the prevalent use 
of this method of study is this : the student has 
been taught that the lesson requirement is the re- 
production of facts. Accordingly, he depends 
upon a mere memorized lesson from the text to 
carry him safely through the ordeal of the recita- 
tion. If he can make excuse that his book is lost, 
the lesson torn out of his text, or that he did not 
know where the lesson is, his comfort both at home 
and at school is assured. Both the parent and the 
teacher accept without further question his ex- 
cuse, and he feels no sense of obligation to regain 
lost opportunities or to reinstate himself in his 
class. 

Another habit equally harmful to study is the 
plan of guessing. To the student who guesses, the 
relation of ideas has no significance. The process 
of reasoning does not enter as a factor in his 
study. He has no other thought than that of de- f^u^g. 
pending upon luck to determine the course of 
action or to meet difficulties as they occur. 

These are a few of the improper methods of 
study in use at present in our best schools, among 
our best students, and tolerated by some of our 
best teachers. They are proof of the fact that 
knowledge of how to study is meager among 
teachers as well as among students. The evil 



172 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Effects of 
wrong 1 meth- 
ods of study. 



Seal study. 



Motive for 
study. 



factors of 
study. 



effects of these methods are evident throughout 
the student's career. While in school, he dislikes 
his studies, his teacher, and his school, and is 
known by his fellow students as a chronic grum- 
bler. Having formed no stable habits of thought 
or of action, he must through his later life con- 
tinue to depend upon others for guidance and 
direction, and he usually becomes known to the 
world as the "knocker" or the "pessimist". 

Ileal Study. — "Real study involves the close ap- 
plication of the mind to a subject for the satisfac- 
tion of a consciously felt need." This feeling of 
mental hunger is not very common among stu- 
dents, even in the advanced years of work. A test 
of this point recently made in a group of college 
students disclosed the fact that a large majority 
of them has little conception of what is meant by 
mental hunger. Some students thought it absurd 
that one should be expected to enjoy a lesson, as 
he would enjoy a baseball game or a good book. 

A consciousness of intellectual need is a domi- 
nant, compelling motive for study. It quickens 
observation, awakens interest, and prompts action. 
There are other factors necessary, however, to 
successful attainment. These are (1) careful ex- 
amination of material for study, (2) selection of 
the correct elements through (a) comparison, and 
(b) the grouping of them in proper sequence into 
a sound conclusion. To complete the process still 
another factor is needed, that of using the knowl- 
edge material, without which it would be "mental 
debris", entirely worthless. No one may be said 
to study who does not feel the need to investigate, 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 173 

generalize, and apply. With these principles as 
a foundation, a systematic plan for study can be 
made that will provide an intelligent guide for 
both the student and the teacher in the solution 
of the problems, "how to study" and "teaching 
how to study" the assigned lesson problem. 

The plan for the lesson study on the part of the 
student varies only in perspective from that of 
the teacher. Each plan is based upon the learn- 
ing processes of acquisition, assimilation, and 
conclusion. The teacher's plan provides for the 
presentation of the subject material through the 
thought processes. The student's plan provides 
for the use of these processes in comprehending 
and applying the material presented. 

The Preparation of the Student. — There is no 
doubt that with no lesson plan a student may "get 
his lesson", upon which he may "recite", in the 
commonly accepted meaning of the process. How- The stuaent »,| 
ever, just as the scientist follows a specific guide preparation, 
based upon scientific principles, so the student, if 
he is to employ the mental processes in real study, 
must follow a plan based upon these processes. 
Any plan for study in order to be adapted to the 
needs of the individual student must correspond 
to the different activities in the learning pro- 
cesses. 

The first step in the student's lesson plan is S tepsinthe 
investigation of the knowledge material demanded J^}? 111 ' 8 l9B *° 
by the lesson problem. There is involved in this 
process (1) the selection of the elements involved, 
(2) supplementing the material from personal 
experience and observation. In the selection of 



174 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Supplemen- 
tary ma- 
terial. 



No standard 
of the worth 
of material. 



specific elements in a problem the student de- 
velops the power of perception, of choice, and 
individual thought. He learns to look for ma- 
terial and to choose what he needs for the solu- 
tion of his problem. This naturally leads to the 
use of supplementary material, both from his 
own store-house of knowledge and from outside 
sources. Many students leave school unable to 
accomplish the task of reading a book, comparing 
it with another, and giving a fair estimate of the 
value of each. Fully as many are unaware that 
to be well educated includes much more than to 
have scholarship. The student who is properly 
taught will be able to select and utilize material 
collected from every source. He has a respect for 
truth wherever it is found, whether in the pages 
of books, in the world of nature, or in the lives 
of men. 

Effective use of supplementary material in- 
volves the process (1) of judging the worth of the 
material, and (2) of classifying or organizing it 
systematically. If this practice is followed in the 
student's preparation of the lesson, a habit of 
logical thought is established. The value of any 
material can be understood only through com- 
parison with other material. A typical poem or 
scientific fact given the student in the text or by 
the teacher furnishes a standard measure by 
which the student is enabled to weigh, consider, 
and select the essentials from the non-essentials, 
and so to reach a correct conclusion for himself 
as to the worth of the poem, or other subject of 
thought. 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 175 

One step needful to reach a broad generaliza- 
tion is open-mindedness, " willingness to wait till 
the evidence is all in. ' ' In hasty generalizing there 
is danger of reaching faulty conclusions. This is 
often the result of accepting statements without JJEKXES. 
sufficient data upon which to base a conclusion. A 
student need not assume an attitude of doubt, but 
in his study he should seek reasons for believing 
or rejecting the statements considered. The stu- 
dent should have the courage of his convictions; 
he should be neither overbold through conceit nor 
a weakling through timidity. 

In the last step of the study plan, that of appli- 
cation, the student applies the test of actual ex- 
periment and thus proves for himself the worth 
of the knowledge gained. In this step, great 
latitude is given for the development of individ- 
uality, originality, and self-direction. There is 
probably no element of character in greater de- 
mand in social life or one more neglected in the 
schools than initiative — the power to start a move- 
ment and keep it going. Some one has said that, 
"our schools are training a thousand men to rew1) ei ntf 
follow to one who can lead." Not until the g^ 6 ** 
school puts the proper emphasis upon the appli- 
cation of knowledge will the student become self- 
confident and independent. 

No special reference has been made to the use 
of memory or of any other specific faculty of the 
mind. It is to be understood that learning in- 
volves the activity of all the mental processes of 
perception, memory, imagination, thought, feel- 
ing, and will. Without the activity of all thesei 



176 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Plana for 

study devel- 
op good 
habits. 



Students 
should Tbe 
trained to 
test them- 
selves. 



Students 
should pre- 
pare sched- 
ule for dally 
Study. 



in each step of the study plan, the observations 
will be superficial, the conclusions incorrect, and 
the application Weak and faulty. 

A logically developed plan of study is an 
effective means of establishing fixed habits of 
thought and action, whether for the teacher or the 
pupil. By such plan there is established a fixed 
standard by which one may test his efforts and 
determine his progress and learn what further 
aid he needs in reaching his goal. 

Few students, even in our best schools, are 
trained to test for themselves their preparation 
of the lesson problem. In mathematics and other 
sciences they may presume that they have meas- 
ured their progress when they know that they 
have solved perhaps ten out of twelve of the 
problems assigned, but usually the only test 
which they apply to their work is to determine 
Whether they will be able to recite if called upon. 

Through systematic study the student learns a 
life lesson of order in all things, whether the task 
be great or small. 

An important consideration in systematic study 
is the time element. Students should be trained 
to use a program for study. It is not recom- 
mended that a daily schedule of study periods be 
made by the teacher for the student. Students 
should be trained to make for themselves the 
practical applications of the lessons and to deter- 
mine for themselves the distribution of their time 
outside the study period. The excuse is often 
given by the student, "I didn't have time". A 
student should be able to estimate how much he 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 177 

can do and how long he will need to complete each 
task. In schools for defective and delinquent 
children specific tests are made to determine each 
student's capacity and his progress, and a per- 
manent record is kept. In common schools, how- 
ever, neither teacher nor student seems to have 
advanced beyond the superficial standard of 
grades as a measure of a student's efficiency. 
This standard for the student is unsatisfactory 
for the reason that the grade merely represents 
to him the teacher's opinion, while it is only 
through realization of his individual capacities 
that he may himself perceive both his strong and 
his weak points and learn upon what he needs to 
intensify his efforts. 

A most helpful means of estimating individual 
progress is a time schedule for each subject kept 
regularly from period to period, recording the 
date, the subject, and the time for preparation of 
the lesson. The following schedule card may be 
adapted to suit the individual needs: 

Time Schedule Card. 
Date Lesson Subject Time Required 

Jan. 12 Surface and Drainage of the sngsreited 

Southern States 30 Min. the studentf 

Jan. 13 Products in general of the 

Southern States 30 Min. 

Jan. 14 Production of Cotton in the 

South 45 Min. 

It is not the rate of speed in thought and action 
which the student acquires from the use of such a 
card. He learns to perceive the problems in their 



178 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Teaching 1 In. 
volves more 
than instruc- 
tion. 



The three, 
fold task of 
the teacher. 



significant relations of greater or less difficulty, 
together with the proportion of time necessary 
to complete a given task. By knowing his own 
capacities, he can the more effectively become 
master of them. A student having finally estab- 
lished definite habits of thought and action 
through use of such a study plan, has equipped 
himself with the first element for successful re- 
search and progress. 

Preparation by the Teacher. — Viewed by the in- 
experienced and untrained mind, the task of 
teaching ends with instruction, and the work of 
the teacher is confined to the schoolroom, with the 
time limited to only five hours per day, five days 
per week, and four weeks per month. Teachers 
have been held responsible merely for the dis- 
semination of facts and judged as to their effi- 
ciency by the ability of students to reproduce 
them. Such reproductions by the students are 
regarded as the measure of the teacher's failure 
or success. 

The work of teaching, however, comprehends 
more than mere instruction by the teacher and 
reproduction by the student. It involves, as well, 
the process of developing and training, without 
which instruction would be futile and reproduc- 
tions impossible. 

The task of the teacher is thus a three-fold one, 

(1) of instructing, furnishing knowledge material, 

(2) of developing and aiding the assimilation of 
this material, and (3) of training, for the purpose 
of bringing about skilful application of the knowl- 
edge gained. With such an ideal of the task 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 179 

before him, no real teacher ever reaches the point 
where he thinks preparation is unnecessary. As 
his work is more responsible and far reaching in 
its influence than that of a student, so his 
preparation must be correspondingly more com- 
plete and the more carefully planned. 

In order to interest the student and stimulate 
him to the greatest effort in making personal re- 
search, the teacher himself must be broad-minded 
and progressive. New views on all subjects are 
being advanced, new methods of instruction are 
being advocated, and the supplementary material 
to be found on every hand is constantly increasing 
in amount and changing in character. 

Again, no two groups of children, though study- 
ing the same lesson problem under the same con- 
ditions, can be taught in the same way. Their Recognition 
"apperceptive bases", the understanding of new ^auam^oV 
ideas through the old, are different. They de- w^p* 
mand different plans of approach and different 
illustrations. Each lesson must be adapted to the 
needs of each class. 

The preparation of a teacher does not end with 
refreshing his old stock of knowledge, collecting 
new material, and adjusting it to the needs of the 
class. Without a well developed lesson plan as 
a part of his preparation, he lacks the compass Kindof prePf 
which will guide him as he pilots the student in SJJSJ^J,. 
his search for truth. The lesson plan should be 
logically developed and suited to this particular 
class group. As has been explained, the lesson 
plan for the teacher differs from that of the stu- 
dent only in perspective. The teacher's view- 



180 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Preparation 
of the lesson 
plan. 



Pint step. 



Beoond step. 



point is that of presenting the subject matter in 
such a way as to bring about the understanding 
and application of it. The lesson plan which he 
uses, like that of the student, must follow the 
process of thought. 

The first step in the preparation of a lesson 
plan by a teacher, and in many ways one of the 
most important, is securing an abundance of ma- 
terial for the lesson problem. An excellent test 
of his ability as a real teacher is his success in 
obtaining, adapting, and putting into actual use 
among his students, an abundant supply of useful 
material. 

Having the necessary knowledge material in 
hand, the second step is its grouping and classifi- 
cation for presentation to the class. It is neces- 
sary to organize the material so that it may 
always be presented from the view point of the 
student. This can best be done by a few large 
group topics or headings, together with whatever 
minor divisions the class needs demand. The 
larger topics are better suited to the student mind, 
and furnish more latitude to the teacher in ad- 
justing the work to the immediate needs of the 
class group. One serious criticism made of stu- 
dents at the present time is their inability to 
organize and classify material. The practice 
which comes from following the plan just stated 
will aid the student in cultivating logical thought. 

More specifically stated, the lesson plan should 
provide broad and general thought questions that 
provoke original thinking. The questions should 
bear upon the main divisions of the outline group 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 181 

and serve to prevent digressions in the class dis- 
cussions, and to stimulate the student to further 
research. It should be remembered that general jpiaaof vms. 

, , , tions for the 

questions only can be made prior to the class lesaonpian. 
period. Specific questions relating to minor de- 
tails must be made as occasions demand. A few 
general questions serve as strong cables with 
which to connect one large group idea with an- 
other and so preserve the sequence of the whole 
idea. 

Another important step in every lesson plan is 
the provision for general summaries which unify 
the entire lesson problem into one complete whole. 
Without this there is danger that the student may 
grasp only details of the lesson; while through 
the use of summaries the student sees the work provision for 
from a higher vantage ground and the broad view smmnarles - 
serves as a stimulus to further study. 

A well developed plan for study contains a list 
of the supplementary material to be used — illus- 
trations, poems, and stories (stating specific chap- ., 
ter and page in books or magazines), pictures, piementary 
maps, charts, and plans for dramatization and 
constructive work. This is one of the most im- 
portant steps of the lesson plan, as the care with 
which it is made practically determines the suc- 
cess or failure of the supplementary work of the 
class. Hardly can too much emphasis be given 
to the necessity of full detail and clear, direct 
references, so that delay will be avoided. 

The last point to be considered in the teacher's 
lesson plan is the provisions for the assignment 
of the succeeding lesson problem. As has been 



182 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Sufficient 
time to be 
taken for 
making" 
definite plans. 



lesson Flan 

Wo. 1. 



shown in the study of lesson assignment, the 
statement of a lesson problem must have certain 
characteristics and be closely related to the lesson 
of the preceding day. It requires both time and 
fore-thought for the teacher to formulate a state- 
ment of a problem that will meet all the needs of 
a class. It is not safe to rely on the inspiration 
of the moment for a statement of the lesson pro- 
blem, that possesses all the essential require- 
ments. The subject of the lesson problem must 
be a well thought out and carefully worded state- 
ment if it meets all the needs of both teacher and 
student in the study of the succeeding lesson. 
Whether the written schedule of assignments 
shall include the details of each day's lesson plan, 
or whether the two shall be kept separate is a 
mere matter of choice. 

The following lesson plans may be used as il- 
lustrations of the type which teachers should 
have for each lesson problem. 

Plan No. 1. 

Text: — Tarr's New Physical Geography, pages 
55-58. 

LESSON PLAN — YOUNG STREAM VALLEYS 

(Mary E. Robb, 5th grade critic, 

Illinois State Normal University.) 

Teacher's Purpose: 
1. To teach the characteristic features of 
young stream valleys, so they may be 
recognized and interpreted in any region. 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 183 

2. To form the basis for a later comparison of 

young and mature stream valleys. 

3. To show through a study of their economic 

importance, the nature of man's response 
to his physiographic environment. 

Unit of Instruction: 

Young Stream Valleys. 

Organisation of Subject Matter: 

1. Characteristic features of young stream 

valleys. 

(a) Broad, low, indefinite divides. 

(b) V-shaped cross-section of valley. 

(c) Many falls and rapids. 

(cl) Many lakes, usually shallow. 

(e) Few and short tributaries. 

(f ) Steep gradient. 

2. Their economic importance. 

(a) Advantages to man — 

(1) Power developed from falls; 

(2) Lakes used as commercial 
highway. 

(b) Disadvantages to man — 

(1) Navigation interrupted by rapids 
and falls; 

(2) Valley difficult to cross by roads 
and railroads. 

Pupil's Problem: 

1. "What are the characteristics of a young 

stream valley? 

2. Of what use is it to man? 
Assignment: Tarr: New Geography, page 55-58. 

1. Figure 65, page 52. 

Which of the four diagrams represents a 



184 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

river that has accomplished most in lower- 
ing the surface of the land! Study the 
changed shape of the valley in each dia- 
gram. 

2. Figure 71: 

How is the river changing its banks ? 

3. Figure 76, page 55 : 

What do you notice about the divides in 

this diagram? 

Why are lakes present? 

4. Read the * ' Life History of a River Valley ' ', 

pages 54 to 57, and study the illustrations. 
From this study be able to name five things 
about such a river valley. 

5. How will such a valley affect commerce? 
Preparation: 

What is the purpose of a river? How does 
it accomplish its purpose? 
Presentation: 

Questions to develop points in organiza- 
tion, discussions of illustrations and dia- 
grams in the text, with use of as much out- 
side illustrative material as possible to 
cover problems raised in the assignment. 

Plan No. 2. 

subject : Solid Measurement. 

text: Sutton and Bruce 's Arithmetic, pages 

97-99. 

LESSON PLAN 

(George N. Cade, 8th Grade Critic, 
Illinois State Normal University.) 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 185 

Teacher's Purpose. 

To lead the pupils to see the different cubi- 
cal units which make up a rectangular 
solid. 

Unit of Instruction. 

Rectangular Solid. 

Organization of Subject Matter. 

1. Unit solid. Preferably a cubic inch. 

1. Length 

2. Width 

3. Thickness. S^ 8<mPlaa 

2. Rectangular solid. 

(a) 1. Length 3 units 

2. Width lunit 

3. Thickness lunit 

(b) 1. Length 3 units 

2. Width 3 units 

3. Thickness lunit 

(c) 1. Length 3 units 

2. Width 3 units 

3. Thickness 3 units. 

Pupil's Purpose. 

To answer questions in the assignment. 

Assignment. 

How many inch squares may be placed on 
a rectangular surface 1 in. x 1 in. so as just 
to cover it? 2 in. x 1 in. I 3 in. x 1 in. ? 4 
imxlin.? 4 in. x 2 in.! 3 in. x 3 in.? 3 
in. x 2 in? 

Study carefully questions 1 to 11 inclusive 
in article 161 on page 97 of your text. 



186 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

Preparation. 

What is a rectangle? What is a square? 
How do we find the area of the square? 

Presentation. 

How many inch squares are required to 
cover one row of squares in the three-inch 
square? 

How many such rows on the three-inch 
square? How many square inches on the 
three-inch square? 

Now instead of using squares, use inch 
cubes, and tell how many may be placed 
so as to cover all the squares in one row 
on the three-inch square? On two rows? 
On three rows? 

How many cubic inches are required to 
cover the square. Give dimensions of this 
rectangular solid. We can tell this one 
layer of unit-cubes. Suppose we make it 
two inches high, how many such layers? 
How many unit cubes? Three layers? 
Now give dimensions of solid. (3 in. x 
3 in. x 3 in.) How many edges has this 
solid? Corners? Faces? Dimensions of 
each face? (Use inch squares and iron 
cubes). 

Plans No. 3 and 4. 

In working out these model lesson plans, the 
following ideals have been constantly kept in 
mind: 

1. To do away with the erroneous idea, which 
too often prevails, that a lesson unit is confined 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 187 

to one recitation, but rather to stress the fact that 
more often it extends over several days. 

2. To simplify the lesson plan, and reduce it 
to such a form that it may not only be compre- 
hended by the average normal school senior, but 
also followed out in the actual teaching process 
after it is written. 

3. To so word all questions as to promote 
active thinking on the part of the class. 

4. To provide for a motive for thinking by 
having a definite problem in mind about which 
the efforts of the students are centered. 

5. To emphasize the fact that the practical use 
or control of knowledge is the final test of the effi- 
ciency of teaching. 

Plan No. 3. 

LESSON UNIT PLAN IN GEOGRAPHY 

GRADE 7 TIME : 2 DAYS. 

THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

(From the Training School of the 
North Texas State Normal College.) 
(Maude L. Fiero.) 
Teacher's Aim. 

To so present the subject that the stu- 
dents will more fully understand: (1) the 
general law governing commerce, (2) its «® 8 3 0nl,lan 
importance to every nation, state and com- 
munity, and (3) how each student may aid 
in improving such conditions in his own 
country and state. 



188 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Pupils' Problem. 

To find out why Great Britain has become 
such a power in the commercial world, and 
how other countries may profit by her ex- 
perience. 



Subject matter. 
Preparation. 

1. Materials used. 

(a) Map showing 
location of Great 
Britain, climate, etc. 

(b) Pictur e s of 
great mining and 
manufacturing cen- 
ters — her harbors, 
canals, etc. 

(c) Kipling's "Ke- 
cessional". 

2. Special points in re- 
view. 

(a) Great Britain is 
an island empire, lo- 
cated Northwest of 
Europe, in the At- 
lantic Ocean. It lies 
between two great 
continents, and has 
water communica- 
tions with all. 
(b) Her climate is 
mild, and her num- 
erous ports are free 



Method 

Preparation. 

1. Assign on previous 
day a general review 
of Great Britian as 
to surface, climate, 
industries and popu- 
lation. 



2. Have a student put 
on the blackboard 
an outline map of 
Great Britian, show- 
ing coal and iron 
fields, ports, and 
rivers. 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 



189 



from ice all the year 
round. 

(c) Her great coal 
and iron mines are 
within easy shipping 
distance of all ports. 

(d) Although her 
population numbers 
45,000,000 people, 
Great Britian raises 
little food stuff. 

(e) As a manufac- 
turing nation, she 
leads the world. 

(f) Her colonies 
are to be found all 
over the world. 

(g) Her navy is 
twice as strong as 



that of 
nation. 



any other 



3. Use world map also. 

L Pivotal questions to 
develop the prepara- 
tion. 

(a) What do you 
consider the most 
significant features 
about the location of 
Great Britian! 

(b) What effect 
does the climate of 
Great Britian have 
upon the condition 
of her ports, rivers, 
and canals? 



190 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



(c) Study the map, 
and see if you can 
pick out the most 
significant fact 
about the location of 
coal and iron fields. 

(d) Compare Great 
Britain's rank as a 
food producer with 
her rank as a manu- 
facturing nation. Ac- 
count for the differ- 
ence. 

(e) Ask the most im- 
portant thought ques- 
tion you can about 
the population of 
Great Britain. 

(f) What relation- 
ship do you think ex- 
ists between Great 
Britain 's navy and 
her colonies? 

Throughout the 
preparation, oppor- 
tunity is given for 
discussion on part of 
the class. 

(g) Have a student 
read "The Keces- 
sional". 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 



191 



Presentation or main 
body of the lesson. 

1. Text: Tarr & Mc- 
Mur ray's Ge- 
ography., pages 
275-6. 

2. References: 
Encyclopedia Britan- 
ica Volume 27, pages 
600-604; 

Current Magazines: 

Atlantic Monthly — 

May, 1914, pages 608, 

609; 

Literary Digest — 

February, 1914, page 

352; 

3. Other Materials: 
Trade route map of 
the world. 

Railroad Map of 
England, Europe and 
the United States. 
Blackboard maps. 
Pictures. 

4. Leading points to be 
made in class. 

(a) Because of her 
location between two 
great continents 



Presentation — or main 
body of the lesson. 

1. Have trade route 
maps on display. 



The references men- 
tioned in subject 
matter will be as- 
signed to individual 
pupils for reports. 



4. 



The student will be 
asked some problems 
in regard to British 
commerce which they 
consider important. 



Pivotal questions: 
(a) What do you 
consider would be a 
good problem for us 
to attempt to solve 



192 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Great Britain natur- 
ally becomes a link 
in trade. 

(b) Because her ports 
are always open, 
trade is never inter- 
rupted by climatic 
conditions (except 
heavy fogs). 

(c) Surrounded by 
water, with no point 
more than seventy- 
five miles from the 
coast, her people 
have always been 
natural sailors. 

(d) In past centuries, 
because of a bold and 
adventurous spirit, 
and a desire to in- 
crease commerce, 
Englishmen have 
pushed into all parts 
of the world and es- 
tablished colonies. 

(e) The soil, not 
yielding enough 
food stuff and raw 
material of various 
kinds,but rich in coal 
and iron, the British 
people have turned 
to manufacturing, ex- 



regarding British 
commerce ? 

(b) In what way 
does Great Britain's 
location affect her 
commercial import- 
ance? 

(c) Discuss the ad- 
vantages offered by 
her open harbors. 

(d) How do you ac- 
count for the bold 
adventurous spirit c f 
English people! How 
would this spirit af- 
fect their commercial 
life? 

(e) What relation- 
ships exist between 
Great Britain and 
her colonies? 

(f) Great Britain 
has rather unpro- 
ductive soil, rich coal 
and iron mines, good 
water routes, and 
colonies rich in raw 
materials. (Make a 
diagram of this on 
blackboard.) To what 
industries did her 
people naturarlly 
turn? Why? 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 



193 



changing manufac- 
tured articles for 
raw materials. 

(f) This trade has 
been stimulated by 
earnest protection on 
the part of the gov- 
ernment. Wherever 
the British merchant- 
man goes — he has the 
protection of the 
British navy. Even 
in this great war 
(1916) (which many 
claim is largely com- 
mercial), British 
trade is but little 
disturbed, except 
with her enemies. 

(g) Rivers, harbors, 
canals, railroads and 
roads are given spe- 
cial attention. Ev- 
erything is done 
which will tend to 
stimulate commercial 
activity (at least it is 
attempted). 

(h) To-day, British 
merchants lead the 
world in trade, and 
Great Britain has 
long been recognized 



(g) What has Great 
Britain done to stim- 
ulate trade 1 
(h) Compare Eng- 
land's rank in the 
commercial world 
with her rank as a 
civilized nation, 
(i) Without this com- 
mercial development, 
what might Great 
Britain's rank be to- 
day? 

(j) Looking at your 
world map — select 
some great nation 
which presents the 
most striking con- 
trast to Great Brit- 
ain. (It is assumed 
that Russia ulti- 
mately be selected.) 
(k) Account for 
these great differ- 
ences in commerce, 
industry and civiliza- 
tion. 

(1) Study the map of 
the United States of 
America. What rea- 
son have we for be- 
lieving that the 
United States will 



194 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



as one of the most 
enlightened and civ- 
ilized of nations. 
Without her com- 
mercial life, England 
would "be an insignif- 
icant country, in- 
stead of the center of 
the civilized world. 
For with the goods 
she buys come ideas, 
manners, customs 
and ideals from other 
people. 

(I) I n comparing 
Great Britain and 
Eussia, we find that 
though much richer 
in natural resources, 
Eussia 's commerce is 
insignificant, just as 
her ports are fewer, 
her internal means 
o f transportation 
poorer by far, and 
her people as a whole 
ignorant and provin- 
cial. 

(j) On the other 
hand, is the United 
States of America. 
Located between Eu- 
rope, Asia and South 



eventually excel 
Great Britain com- 
mercially, and other- 
wise? 

It is assumed that 
many questions will 
be asked by the class ; 
the teacher, by the 
aid of these big, in- 
clusive questions, 
merely guiding the 
students toward log- 
ical and definite con- 
clusions. 

(m) Why are we jus- 
tified in saying that 
commerce means 
wealth and progress f 
(n) What are the 
main conditions 
which affect com- 
merce? 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 195 



America, with thou- 
sands of miles of 
coast line, rich in 
natural resources, 
with fine rivers, nu- 
m e r o u s railroads, 
she is fast assuming 
a leading place in 
commerce. Her peo- 
ple are rich, her uni- 
versities and schools 
prosper. There is a 
marked tendency 
toward broad mind- 
edness, as shown by 
her attitude during 
the war. 

5. Great truths to be 
emphasized : 
(a) It is safe to con- 
clude that commer- 
cial development 
means increased 
wealth and progress 
along all lines, be- 
cause : 

(1) It brings people 
into contact with one 
another, and causes 
circulation of new 
ideas, ideals and 
knowledge. 

(2) A non-commer- 



196 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Ho. 4. 
Lesson Flan 



cial nation is almost 
always of an igno- 
rant, bigoted, unpro- 
gressive type. 

Conclusion. 

The application 

or using of the knoivl- 

edge gained. 

1. What is true about 
commerce of nations 
is also true of state 
or community com- 
merce. 

2. The County of Den- 
ton, Texas, if it is to 
be progressive and 
wide awake, must 
have good roads, 
well cultivated soil, 
and active commer- 
cial life. 



Conclusion. 
Let us assume that we 
are the voters in the 
County of Denton. We 
want our county to be 
progressive, wide 
awake, and wealthy. 

What conditions will 
we work to establish? 

Why is it worth while 
for the State of Texas 
to spend so much money 
on the port of Galves- 
ton? 

If the building of a 
good road in Denton 
County would increase 
your taxes, would you 
vote for it? 

Why ? 

No. 4. 

LESSON UNIT PLAN IN READING 
GRADE I — DATE 

The Gingerbread Boy 

(From the Training School of the North Texas 

State Normal College.) 

(Mrs. Cora Martin.) 

Teacher's Aim. 

Through interest developed in the story, to 



Plan 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 



197 



teach the new words which it contains, thereby 
increasing the child's reading vocabnlary. 
Pupils' Problem. 

To recognize the new words in order to be able 
to read the story. 



Subject matter 

1, Introduction. 

Conversation about 
cakes cut in various 
shapes, which the 
children have seen or 
have had made for 
them. 



2. Presentation. 

(a) The story of the 
Gingerbread Boy. 

(b) Dramatization. 
A comparison of the 
different characters. 



Method. 

1. Introduction. 

Did your mother 
ever make you any 
little cakes and cut 
them out like cats, 
dogs, or any other 
animals ? Tell us 
about them. Perhaps 
you have had some 
cut in the shape of a 
little boy. (Lead the 
children to express 
themselves freely.) 
I know a story about 
a little gingerbread 
boy — such a funny 
little boy cut out of 
gingerbread dough ! 
(Some child will ask 
for it.) 

2. Presentation. 

(a) Tell the story in 
as interesting man- 
ner as possible. 
Pivotal questions: 
Do you like it ? 



198 



PRINCIPLES AND PEOCESSES 



A comparison of the 
different ideas, 
(c) Eeading. 
Material used in the 
printed story on a 
chart for the first 
lesson, then sen- 
tences, phrases and 
words contained in 
the story are printed 
on cards, and these 
are used in connec- 
tion with the chart. 



What part do you 
like best? Why do 
you like that part 
best? 

(b) Could you do 
as the gingerbread 
boy did? Show us! 
Perhaps some one 
can show us how the 
old woman did, and 
tell us just what she 
said. (Call for ideas 
as to the actions of 
different characters. 
Discuss these, and let 
the children decide 
on the best ones.) 
Would you like to 
show how these char- 
acters acted all to- 
gether, just as the 
story gives it? (Let 
the setting and the 
action be given by 
the children. Occa- 
s i o n a 1 suggestions 
may be necessary to 
preserve organiza- 
tion.) 

(c) Here is a chart 
which has this story 
printed on it. If you 
could only read it, 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 



199 



3. Application. 

Cards with sen- 
tences, phrases or 
words from the 
story. 



you might give moth- 
. er a nice surprise 
some day by asking 
her to come to school 
to hear you read a 
story. Why, yes, of 
course, we can learn 
to read it! "Would 
you like to begin? 
The story is then 
read by the class, the 
teacher pointing to 
the words as they 
read, being careful to 
"swing it along " to 
get correct expres- 
sion, and not stop the 
pointer at each word. 
Volunteers are then 
asked to read the 
first sentence, the 
next, and so on 
through the story. 
After this phrases 
are pointed out, and 
finally single words. 

3. Application. 

At t h e beginning o f 
the next lesson on 
this subject, the 
cards are given the 
children, and they 



200 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Lesson Flan 
Wo. 5. 



New combinations 
are made from phrases 
contained in story 
These are printed on 

cards. 



discover they are 
parts of the chart 
story. They then 
match them with 
sentences, phrases 
and words on the 
chart. They then ar- 
range their cards ac- 
cording to sequences, 
and read the story 
from them. 

Later, new combi- 
nations are made, 
and the sentences 
read, which is a final 
test of the child's 
power to use the 
knowledge gained. 

Plan No. 5. 

TEXT: Elson's Grammar School Reader — Book 

Four. 

SELECTION: The Voyage— by Irving 
Beginning on page 132, from beginning of selec- 
tion to line 24 on page 135, or eight paragraphs. 
The two stanzas at the beginning were read, but 
not counted in the eight paragraphs. 

(From Illinois State Normal University) 

Teacher's Purpose. 
1. To lead the pupils to appreciate the inci- 
dents of the voyage, which affected Irving; 
how they affected him; and in what man- 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 201 

ner these experiences prepared him for 
the land trip. 

2. To improve the pupils' control of the me- 

chanics through drill exercises. 

3. To prepare the pupils through the realiza- 

tion of 1 and 2 to read well. 
Unit of Instruction. 

The Voyage, by Irving. 
Organization of Subject Matter. 

I. A sea voyage as a preparation for visiting 
a strange continent. 

1. Absence of worldly scenes. 

2. Vast space of waters. 

3. Vacancy. 

II. Contrast of land and sea trip. 

1. Land trip. 

(a) Continuity of scenery. 

(b) Succession of persons and in- 
cidents. 

(c) "A lengthening chain." 

(d) Trace it link by link. 

2. Voyage. 

(a) Consciousness of being cast 
loose from settled life. 

(b) Sent adrift upon a doubtful 
world. 

(c) Uncertainty of return. 

III. The author's own feeling. 

1. Closed one volume of the world. 

2. Changes might take place. 

IV. The author spent time meditating. 

1. Musing on summer sea. 

2. Gazing on golden clouds. 



202 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

3. Watching undulating billows. 

4. Watching animals at sea. 

5. Reflecting on all he had read. 

V. The sight of a distant ship. 

VI. The sight of wreckage. 

1. Evidences of loss of life. 

2. Thoughts that came to his mind. 

Pupil's Problem. 

To solve the problems of the assignment. 

Assignment. Page 132. The Voyage. 

Pronounce and define these words : Prep- 
arative, imperceptibility, continuity, inter- 
poses, palpable, precarious, reveries, un- 
dulating, conjure. 

How does a sea voyage prepare one for a 
visit to a strange place? Name three such 
conditions. 

In the contrast of land and sea trips, name 
three conditions in the land trip not in the 
voyage, and three in the voyage not in the 
. land. 

How did the author feel when the last 

traces of land faded from his sight ? 

Name some ways the author spent his 

time on board? 

How did the sight of a distant ship affect 

him? 

Why do you think he saw the usefulness 

of the ship more vividly than ever? 

What thoughts came to him when he saw 

the wreckage? 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 203 

Preparation. 

Experiences of pupils in either land or sea 
trips or both. 

A teacher's year book of lesson plans, modeled 
after this standard, is of incalculable value to him 
in his instruction, and of much interest to the 
class as a general summary of its work through- JJar^oS 6 *' 8 
out the course. The impossibility of making o'p 18118 - 
daily lesson plans of such elaborate detail as 
those given here is obvious. The necessity of 
having them made, however, is felt as not less 
imperative. The solution of the difficulty can be 
met only by the teacher's having his lesson plans 
for a period of a week, a month, or a term already 
developed. In this way, the preparation needed 
daily would be only a review of the lesson plan 
in which needed adjustments could be made. It 
would greatly increase the efficiency of the teach- 
ers, and the success of their work, if school boards 
and superintendents would consider the necessity 
of this step in the teacher's preparation, and an- 
nounce at the time of his election his specific 
assignment of work. 



CHAPTER XV 
THE LESSON CONTINUED 

III. THE LESSON RECITATION 

The third stage in the development of the Les- 
son, the Lesson Recitation, is probably of more 
general interest than either the Lesson Assign- 
ment or the Lesson Preparation. 
The Recitation. — In its original meaning, the 
JhasfStue term recitation signifies simply "the act of say- 
lesion. i ng again.' > The literal definition of the word 

may explain in some measure the pernicious cus- 
tom that has been so tenaciously fastened upon 
the teacher and student in this most important 
school exercise. This interpretation of the reci- 
tation process makes no provision for the exercise 
of any mental activity save that of memory; so 
interpreted, a recitation consists merely of having 
students mechanically repeat the words, verbatim, 
from the text book. To judge a student by his 
ability to repeat the thoughts of the text, as a pure 
memory exercise, is not far removed from the 
old understanding of the recitation idea. It is 
possible for a student to state and give the analy- 
sis of problems in arithmetic, of sentences in 
grammar, and of causes and effects in history, 
and for the act to be still a mere memory process. 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 205 

The evil effects resulting from such exercises 
have prompted a persistent search for a specific 
remedy. As a result, there has been given in the 
last two decades more real study, especially by 
teachers, to this phase of the Lesson problem 
than probably to both of the others combined. The 
discoveries have been most gratifying and the Meaning of 

J ° the recitation. 

progress no less marked than that made in other 
fields of research. A new meaning has been 
given to the word, and a wider scope to the pro- 
cess. "The Kecitation" no longer signifies to the 
student merely "saying again" dull facts culled 
from books, but it suggests opportunity for inter- 
change of ideas and the results of research." 

The recitation period is no longer considered 
merely a testing period, but is in reality what it 
has been called — a "thinking period". 

The Purposes of the Recitation. — One of the most 
important purposes of the recitation is suggested 
by this change of view — that of stimulating the 
self activity of the student, the power of inde- thi^ecita 
pendent research, and a keen critical insight into on * 
new truths. No recitation is complete that fails 
in establishing in the student such habits of 
thought. 

A second purpose of the Eecitation is the de- 
velopment of the student's ability to "see" and seuZcSvRy. 
"know" or to "perceive relations and draw con- 
clusions." It is expected of every student that 
he be able to meet the "knowledge test" in the to develop 
fullest sense. The ability to quote formulas, to power! 80 
recite data, or to explain the mysteries of science 
merely suggest skill in training — the gathering of 



206 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



To develop 
the social 

instincts. 



Character. 



Summary of 
the purposes 
of the recita- 
tion. 



knowledge material, an abundant supply of in- 
formation. To complete the test, he must be able 
to reach a conclusion. The student of the pres- 
ent must answer the question, What do you think? 

A third purpose of the Eecitation is that of 
training the student into a proper appreciation of 
the relation which should exist between himself 
and his fellows. tNo better opportunity is af- 
forded for developing a wholesome respect for the 
opinions of others, or a due consideration for their 
rights. Such characteristics as courtesy and 
kindness inevitably follow such training and be- 
come established habits in the student. The real 
aim of the Eecitation, then, is the development of 
character through the establishment of correct 
habits of thought and feeling, purpose and action. 

More specifically stated, the various purposes of 
the recitation may be outlined as follows : 

1. To test the knowledge of the student, that 
is, to ascertain whether he does or does not know 
the subject. 

2. To correct the errors of the student, and ex- 
plain the difficulties which he has met. 

3. To cultivate skill in original expression 
through increased vocabulary and fluency of 
speech. 

4. To stimulate interest in study through di- 
rect contact with teacher and fellow students. 

5. To cultivate habits of thought through a 
knowledge of how to study. 

6. To develop in the student individuality and 
self reliance through application of the general 
truths of the lesson. 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 207 

The Rules of the Recitation. — In order that all 
the purposes of the Eecitation may be fulfilled, 
proper conditions of study are essential; and to 
obtain these conditions, there are certain rules 
which must be observed, most of which relate to 
the problem of how to arouse interest and hold 
attention. Solving the problem of attention prac- S^uon? 16 
tically ends the difficulty. Attention is the focal 
point of mental activity. It is said to be the very 
' - heart of consciousness ' '. It is the indispensable 
attitude of mind necessary to the reception of 
ideas. It is safe to say, when there is no at- interest 

^ ' always 

tention there is no new knowledge gained. At- necessary, 
tention is prerequisite to interest, and interest fos- 
ters attention. They are complementary atti- 
tudes of the mind. The necessity of the case de- Attention 
termines the degree of interest, and interest interest, 
holds the attention. The kind of attention which 
a student can give to a subject indicates some- 
thing of his intellectuality. Power to give close 
individual attention is a characteristic of a trained 
mind, while listless, passive attention indicates 
dreamy indecision and lack of mental vigor. 

The general rule for the recitation should be: General rule. 
Every student attentive to the matter in hand. 
To secure such attention on the part of the class, 
the following rules aid materially: 

Conduct the lesson for the benefit of the entire 
class. If a question is asked either by a student 
or teacher, it should be addressed to the class as 
a whole, and then a particular student designated 
to answer the question. When a student has been 
designated, the question belongs to him as a right, 



208 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Formalities 
of the recita- 
tion. 



Original 11. 
lustrations 
should he 
required. 



Taking 1 and 
making" notes 
during* recita- 
tion, a waste 
of time. 



until he has had fair opportunity of answering 
uninterrupted by teacher or other student. All 
explanations of problems, whether at the board 
or at the seat, all discussions of maps or themes, 
should be given for the benefit of the entire class, 
and not for the teacher. 

Kequire students when reciting to rise and ad- 
dress the class. Incoherent answers or exact rep- 
etitions of facts from the text book destroy atten- 
tion and cultivate listless inactivity. The effect 
on the student reciting is equally disastrous. The 
student should be expected to contribute to the 
interest, alertness, and enthusiasm of the class 
by an energetic discussion of some vital point. 

Teach the student to give original illustrations 
of the lesson, instead of repeating those in the 
text. Experience shows that students rarely, if 
ever, get beyond memorizing the illustration 
stated in the text, and repeating it often verbatim. 
Such practice is not tolerated in our daily lives, 
where an apology is usually offered for the repe- 
tition of a story, even though it is apt and full 
of humor. 

Allow no promiscuous note-taking during the 
recitation. Students should be trained to "pay 
attention and listen," and one can give attention 
to only one thing at a time. The practice of note- 
taking has been much abused, and there is a tend- 
ency among students to rely too much on their 
note-books. Teachers often spend entire recita- 
tion periods dictating notes which the students are 
required to copy. 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 209 

This is a Waste of time and energy, both for the 
teacher and the student, and it has no value except 
as an exercise in dictation. 

Use abundant illustrations. The quantity of 
suitable material on every hand makes it possible 
to connect the new or unknown facts with the fa- 
miliar and the known. The use of illustrations motions, 
suggests the variety of appreciation of the ideas 
presented, and thus attracts and holds the 
attention. 

Introduce something new or different to give 
variety to the work. Dull monotony is destructive 
to mental activity. Children in poorly taught kin- 
dergarten schools are usually entertained and 
amused, rather than trained and instructed. The 
result is a restless inattentive child wholly incap- 
able of concentrating his mind upon one thing for 
any length of time. 

Forms of the Recitation.— The terms "Forms ponnsof 
of the Sedation'' and "Methods of the Eecita- reoitation - 
tion" should be understood. The "Forms of the 
Recitation" relates to the manner in which it 
may be conducted. There are two principal 
forms, the oral and the written. "The Method 
of the Recitation" means simply the mode of pro- 
cedure. There are three principal methods, the 
lecture method, the interrogation method, and the 
developing or conversational method. The na- 
ture of the subject and the lesson aims determine 
to some extent the form of the recitation. In 
mathematics and science, the recitation is for the 



210 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Each form 
has value. 



The written 
recitation. 



HaTbit of 
cramming' for 
written 
work vicious. 



Values of 
written work. 



In writing 1 
the student 
learns to use 
logical order. 



most part conducted in written form, while the 
recitation in history and literature is usually con- 
ducted orally. 

There are some definite lesson values in each 
form of the recitation. Each gives excellent 
training to the student in self expression, easy 
self control, and self direction. Both forms have 
a place in each subject of the entire course and 
should be employed. 

There has been developed among teachers and 
students the idea that the written recitation in 
some way exceeds in importance the oral recita- 
tion. The result is seen in the pernicious habit of 
cramming, which has practically destroyed the 
real value of written work. This view on the part 
of the student is caused partly perhaps by the 
teacher's placing undue emphasis on the value of 
grades made on the written work. In the written 
recitation, the student develops expression 
through written form. He learns to think while 
using his pen and to use it with ease. Rapidity 
and clearness, the style of expression, the gram- 
matical form of his sentences, the correct use of 
terms and the spelling of words, all enter as ele- 
ments into the written recitation, whether it be in 
English or other subject. 

An important result of written work is that it 
quickens the mental processes of the student. He 
learns to think quickly, and to express himself 
more readily on paper. He is forced to omit the 
trite text book illustrations, to organize his ma- 
terial in logical sequence, and to think in logical 
order. 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 211 

The written recitation also furnishes the stu- 
dent an opportunity for the discussion of larger 
thought units as a whole instead of confining him 
to the discussion of details characteristic of the 
oral recitations. It is possible for one to collect SSP-SJJK?' 
numerous details and to be conversant with them, S±ta» BOXl 
and still have little knowledge of the work as a awnoie. 
whole. | Another advantage of the written lesson 
is that each student is given opportunity on the 
lesson as a whole. 

With these definite purposes kept in view, the 
written lesson furnishes an excellent basis for the 
student's own estimation of his progress. The opportunity 
comparison of each lesson with the one preceding i^ progress? ." 
marks the degree of progress. For this reason, 
all written work, with the date specified, should 
be preserved either by the teacher or by the stu- 
dent, from which an estimate may be made when 
desired. 

Through the oral recitation the student should Advantages 
develop skill both in listening and in oral expres- recitation, 
sion. Conversation is said to be a lost art. If 
this be true, the school has had no small part in 
bringing about this result. The practice of train- 
ing students to wait till called upon by the teacher 
to give any expression of thought has a tendency 
to destroy spontaneity and initiative, and to en- 
gender a passive, receptive attitude of mind. 

In order that the student may be able to enter 
into the discussion of the lesson problem, and con- 
tribute something new to what has already been 
given, the ear must be trained to catch ideas as Training- to 
they are given, the memory to retain and the judg- JJ_ ink aulok " 



212 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Training- to 
speak in 

public. 



Test of 
efficiency. 



Methods of 
the recita- 
tion. 



ment to weigh and consider them. Only one of 
three explanations can be given for a student's 
repeating facts or statements which have already 
been given during the recitation. He has failed 
to give attention, his memory is poor, or his gen- 
eral conception of the problem vague. 

During the oral recitation a student is brought 
face to face with his teacher and fellow students, 
and through spirited exchange of ideas is stimu- 
lated and encourarged to believe in his own 
powers "to be" and "to do'.. 

The oral recitation cultivates the ability to 
think and speak in public. As it is commonly con- 
ducted, this advantage of the oral recitation is 
practically lost, as the student usually addresses 
the "answer" to the teacher, often speaking too 
low even to be heard distinctly by him. Students 
should rise and address to the class whatever they 
have to contribute to the lesson recitation. 

Ease both in action and thought results 
from continued practice. The student by practice 
forms habits of thinking logically and clearly, and 
speaking effectively in public. 

The test of efficiency is not only in being able 
to see, know, and do well, but also in being able 
to do quickly. Many men can give good counsel 
if long time is allowed to weigh and consider. 
The well educated man is one who can command 
promptly and accurately any desired information, 
and apply it efficaciously. 

The Methods of the Recitation. — No other prob- 
lem in education has received more study than 
Methods of the Recitation. To the teacher it is a 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 213 

matter of constant difficulty and concern how to 
study, plan, and present the subject matter to the 
student. Some one has said that "the greatest 
discovery of the nineteenth century is the child". 
The careful study of child nature, of appercep- 
tion, of inductive and deductive processes in 
learning all have made him the pivotal figure 
around which all the problems of education 
revolve. 

Teachers should know something of the Meth- 
ods of the Kecitation which have characterized 
the teaching of the past. A knowledge of past 
methods enables him to better understand modern 
methods of instruction. 

It is interesting to note the early mode of the 
recitation, in which the " instructor ' ' taught only 
one student. This was commonly practiced among 
the Greeks and Eomans. The class group idea, 
or the simultaneous method, followed the indi- 
vidual mode of recitation. 

Originally the " instructor' ' was a learned 
doctor who taught the "scholars". There were 
then few libraries and books, and all "learning" 
was transmitted by word of mouth. Thus the 
name "lecture" became attached to this method 
of the recitation.. 

It is readily seen that though giving to the stu- 
dent an opportunity of learning from the best The lecture 
authorities, the "lecture method" violates the law sneth0<:L 
of self activity by regarding the student as a 
passive recipient, and disregarding the principle 
of apperception; that is the use of past experi- 
ences in developing new truths. 



214 



PKINCIPLES AND PEOCESSES 



The method 
of interroffa. 
tion. 



The question 
method. 

The topic 

method. 



The art of 
questionings 



The introduction of the law of self -activity into 
the method of instruction, developed the Method 
of Interrogation. It is intended by this plan to 
bring the students into some definite active rela- 
tionship to one another in the recitation period. 
This method of instruction has been variously in- 
terpreted and applied. The "Socratic Method", 
so called from the great Greek philosopher, Socra- 
tes, who was an " educator'' rather than an in- 
structor", is accepted as the most perfect method 
of interrogation, as he employed in his method 
the principle of apperception. He taught that 
education was a process of * 'leading out" and 
thus of developing the activities of the learner 
rather than a process of " pouring in" and filling 
a void. His plan was to begin with what the stu- 
dent knew, and through questioning, to lead him 
to the truths he did not know. 

There are two forms of the method of interro- 
gation, popularly known as the Question andAn- 
siver Method and the Topic Method. In each of 
these, it is the practice of the teacher to suggest 
the question or topic, and for the student to give 
the answer, either directly or through discussion. 
The two methods differ very little except in the 
time given to the student for giving his answer or 
for developing the topic. 

Questioning is a difficult art. Many teachers 
resort to specific plans or devices for calling on 
the student. Some call the students in alphabet- 
ical order, others use modifications of this method 
with a card system for the class. When this 
method is used, the student soon learns the order 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 215 

in which his turn comes to recite, and he can pre- 
pare for the very day and often for the specific 
paragraph or problem upon which he will be re- 
quired to recite. This method is a direct violation 
of the principle that each student should feel per- 
sonally responsible for all class work. It disre- 
gards the value of self activity and leaves the stu- 
dent dependent upon the teacher. 

Strong pivotal questions are necessary in every Nature of 
recitation. They are a test of one's skill, whether questions. 
he be student or teacher. The questions are of 
three classes — those which test the knowledge of 
the student, and are introduced by who, ivhat, 
and ivhere; those which test the understanding of 
the student, and are asked by how, and ivJiy, prove, 
etc.; and those which test the feeling and will, 
the power to feel and the power to do. Each 
form of question, when well directed by the 
teacher, may be used to stimulate the mental activ- 
ity, rather than merely to prompt a correct an- 
swer to the question. 

In order to stimulate interest and to promote 
activity in the questioning period of the recita- 
tion, the following rules should be observed : 

1. Ask the question; then designate the stu- Formalities 
dent who is to answer it. Never address the stu- mgr. 
dent before stating the question; as, "Miss Jones, 

please tell me," etc. 

2. Do not call upon students in alphabetical 
order, or in any other fixed order. When fixed 
groups are made, the fact is soon detected, and 
those who are inclined to shirk will prepare them- 
selves accordingly. 



216 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

3. Ask only large, pivotal questions, as far as 
practicable. Train the student in his study to 
formulate questions on points he does not com- 
prehend. Use questions prepared specifically for 
the particular class group. Most text books in 
use at present either omit questions entirely or 
place them at the end of the chapter. There is a 
tendency, however, for students and some teach- 
ers to rely on the headings of the paragraphs to 
serve in place of the questions which were for- 
merly stated. 

Ask questions that will test the knowledge of 
the student; as, "What conditions led to the fall 
of Eome?"; those that will test the understand- 
ing; as, "What would have been the effect on the 
South had New Orleans been the port of entry"; 
those that will test the powers of feeling and will ; 
as, "How would you feel?" and "What would 
you do?" 

The practice of teachers in asking questions 
which could be answered by Yes or No, or by the 
one suggestive word omitted in the question, 
always results in a small speaking vocabulary. 

It is said that the reading vocabulary of the 
average person is about twenty thousand words, 
while his speaking vocabulary is only about five 
hundred. 

Of all methods of conducting a recitation the 
one probably best known and most universally 
The text- used is the Text Booh Method, which developed as 
an attempt to break away from the early lecture 
method of instruction. The use of the Text Book 
Method is not a great improvement upon the Lee- 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 217 

ture Method. It is supposed to provide for 
greater self activity. This, it may or may not 
do. It depends largely upon the teacher as he di- 
rects the class. With many teachers, students 
memorize the text and report to the recitation 
period to exploit what they have learned by an- 
swering questions stated in the text. With other 
teachers, the students are trained to interpret, 
memorize, and then repeat the thought of the text. 
While this is a step beyond the earlier applica- £2fbook he 
tion of the text book method, yet even in this the method, 
work of the student is limited to culling from the 
text the meager knowledge material contained 
therein, while the work of the teacher is merely 
to test the student's acquisition of this material. 
This misconception of the purpose of study proves 
most disastrous. The knowledge gained consists 
mostly of memorized facts with perhaps ability 
to use them in the original form or setting. The 
student has no conception of any possibility of 
new adjustments, combinations, and modifications 
to enrich the old, to bring about something new. 
The effect on character is no less serious. Hav- 
ing a false standard of attainment, the student 
attempts outward perfection in form of knowledge 
rather than growth in the content of it. Failure 
to accomplish his task results in discouragement, 
lack of self confidence, often in dishonesty, suspi- 
cion of the teacher, and ultimately in antagonism 
toward all life problems and people in general. 
Those who really study and learn under such con- 
ditions may be said to do so in spite of the method 
of instruction. 



218 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The real goal 
of instruction. 



The develop- 
ing 1 method. 



The practice among many teachers of marking 
or grading the student on his daily recitation has 
caused him to lay emphasis on the text book 
knowledge, and to lose sight of the real goal of 
instruction, — the establishment of fixed habits of 
thought and action. 

Books have been greatly improved; and when 
used as guides, or outlines for both the teacher 
and student, they serve as time savers, and as a 
means for determining disputed theories and for 
correcting misconceptions. 

The most modern of all mehtods used in the 
most progressive schools of the present day is 
called by some the Discussion Method, by some 
the Conversational Method, and by others the De- 
veloping Method of the Eecitation. In this 
method, the teacher guides the students in verify- 
ing and applying the results of their study and 
research for the truths obtained from a lesson 
problem. The Developing Method provides prob- 
ably the greatest opportunity for conducting the 
recitation according to the most generally ac- 
cepted views. 

During the period of recitation conducted by 
this method, there is free discussion of the vari- 
ous aspects of the problem, their relative worth is 
weighed and considered, and a conclusion reached 
and verified. The student does not accept the 
facts merely because given by good authority. 
He tests for himself through application the prac- 
tical value of the principles, and discovers new 
and more effective means for their use. It has 
been said that ''there is all the difference in the 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 219 

world in having to say something and having 
something to say". 

In this method of the recitation, the stndent no 
longer feels he mast recite, but that he must have 
a chance to express his opinion, to prove his view 
point, or to get needed information. 

It is not to be understood that this method is 
used independently of the text book, any more 
so than any other methods discussed. Books for 
schools have been very happily called text books, 
the very name signifying an outline or guide to 
study. Students must be trained to be independ- 
ent of both teacher and text book. The Develop- 
ing Method, with the text book as a guide for the 
student, provides for much independent study 
through the use of supplementary material. 

Herein lies the great change in the view point mmagin. 
of the stutdent. He no longer thinks only of the pp^t of 

VJ.©W. 

mastery of text book knowledge. He no longer 
venerates books, but regards them as necessary 
equipment provided for use in special lines of 
activity, just as the crayon or laboratory supplies Boofegare 
are furnished for certain activities. Both the only tools 

and sources 

teacher and the student now understand the real of material, 
valuo of the various studies in furnishing specific 
elements of mental food necessary to increase par- 
ticular mental powers, — nature study and history 
for the cultivation of observation and retention, 
grammar and arithmetic for the reasoning pow- 
ers ; and literature and ethics for emotion and will. 
The use of the text book as a source of material 
and as a guide as well, eliminates one of the great- 
est dangers in the use of this method. 



220 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

The adoption of this method by inexperienced 
and untrained teachers may result in incoherent, 
illogical, and superficial work. Accustomed to 
plans specifically set, they are sometimes lacking 
in powers of self direction. ..„ They find difficulty 
in its application primarily because of their ina- 
bility to lead in a discussion. Having had little 
experience in study beyond the pages of a text 
book, they must depend upon following the well 
established plan of their predecessors. 

All teachers, especially those who are un- 
trained and unskilled, need a well developed les- 
son plan to prevent wandering or digressing from 
the discussion of the problem assigned. Often 
there is much time and energy wasted through 
lack of such a plan. It is the teacher's task to 
provide these plans, and thus prevent needless 
waste. 

It is not expected that any attempt be made to 
use this method in dealing with those facts which 
need no development, such as the self evident 
maxim, "Time is Passing." 

The Steps of the Recitation. — In every recita- 
tion properly conducted, its formal steps may be 
accurately traced. They are often called the Her- 
bartian Method of Instruction because Herbart 
was the first to work out a process of instruction 
based upon the process of mental growth and ac- 
tivity, that is of investigation, generalization, and 
conclusion. The Formal Steps may be given as the 
presentation of individual notions, the procedure 
from individual to general notions, and last the 
appreciation of general notions. Stated specific- 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 221 

ally, there are five Formal Steps, (1) Preparation, ^S e 8teps 
(2) Presentation, (3) Comparison and Abstrac- °| c *^ ton 
tion, (4) Definition and, (5) Application. These 
steps provide for the teacher an intelligent 
method of procedure in his instruction ; that is, of 
beginning with known facts, proceding from those 
to more general and unknown truths, and finally 
after having verified these principles, applying 
them in present day activities. 

Preparation.— Preparation, the first of the For- The flrst 8tep - 
mal Steps of the Eecitation, provides, through the 
calling up of past experiences and a review of the 
facts already learned, for the application of the 
principle of apperception. Examination of the 
student's fund of knowledge material which fur- 
nishes the foundation for the new ideas becomes 
the first task of the teacher. To ascertain the 
correctness of the ideas already possessed as well 
as the abundance of them is of great importance. 
Through reviews the teacher may refresh the 
mind of the student, correct misconceptions, and 
strengthen the ideas already formed. 

The term Revieiv is often interpreted in a literal Beview and 
sense, that is merely to see again, and is con- 
ducted as a drill lesson. The drill lesson, repeat- 
ing the facts, in fixed order and form, establishes - 
a fixed habit of response and thus makes the 
knowledge permanent. Both reviews and drills 
serve a specific educational purpose and should be 
so planned as not to consist of monotonous repe- 
titions. 

A knowledge of the student's attitude toward 
his task is necessary in preparing for the develop- 



222 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



New ideas 
must fa e as- 
sociated with 
old ones. 



The attitude 
of the 
teacher. 



ment of a new thought and its adjustment to the 
knowledge already possessed. Failure to regard 
carefully each of these points sooner or later re- 
sults seriously. The assumption that a student 
understands a principle because it has been given 
in a preceding lesson or because he may discuss 
it fluently, is not safe. Misconception always 
leads to incorrect conclusions and applications. 
Students realize this truth perhaps aftener in 
mathematics than in other subjects. In the teach- 
ing of history, literature, and science, as well as 
in mathematics, new ideas should be related to 
those already learned since they can be understood 
only when so presented. No student can enjoy 
''Paul Revere 's Ride" unless it is given in its 
proper setting; nor the story of the "Boston Tea 
Party" without a knowledge of the struggle over 
the tax on tea. The mere recital of incidents in 
history or literature is a process similar to recit- 
ing verbatim the stated problems and answers in 
Algebra and so ending the Algebra lesson. 

Through this preparatory work, the teacher is 
given an execllent opportunity for discovering the 
predilections of the student. The feelings play 
an important part in determining the course of ac- 
tion and must be considered by the teacher in 
cultivating definite habits of thought. Every one 
is influenced to a greater or less extent by his 
feelings. An indifferent or repellent attitude 
prevents a ready grasp of new ideas ; whereas the 
manner in which the student first grasps a new 
idea will determine his later conception of it. 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 223 

The statement of the subject of the problem and aneinaivia. 
the development of an individual aim for the stu- ua ' 
dent prove of great value. By this, the student, 
as well as the teacher, is made aware of the close 
relation of the new ideas to those the student had 
before. From this there is developed a more per- 
sonal appreciation through a realization of per- 
sonal need of this new knowledge material. 

Presentation. — The Preparatory Step having The second 
been well made, the second step in the method of 
instruction, the presentation of the subject mat- 
ter, proceeds rapidly and without danger of mis- 
conceptions since the student through the light of 
his past experiences readily grasps the signifi- 
cance of the problem. 

The Methods of the Eecitation which have been 
discussed apply to each of the Formal Steps of 
the Eecitation. The method should be used in the 
steps of presentation which will best provide for 
the student's "complete appropriation" of the 
new knowledge. In this step the student should 
through actual experience observe closely this ma- 
terial in relation to his past experience and then 
select for himself details for the solution of the 
lesson problem. 

Generalization. — Having collected the data, the S e * ie, *S*»- 
step oi generalization is employed in organizing jjjjjj^f 116 
and arranging the material. Unorganized mate- 2if?SfS 
rial is worthless, facts must be compared and their recitation, 
relative worth determined before a conclusion can 
be reached. The step of generalization involves 
the processes of comparison and abstraction and 
the reaching of the conclusion or definition. 



224 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Standards 
of measures. 



Text book a 
a guide only. 



The fifth 
step. 



In the process of comparison the student needs 
some well chosen types, as standard units or meas- 
ures by means of which he may judge the relative 
value of his material. All business transactions 
are based upon some accepted standard of meas- 
ure; as the dollar, the yard, the pound, etc. It 
is not a good practice to leave the student without 
a standard thought unit of measure, that is, to 
teach him definitions and rules with no typical 
example to be used as a guide in study and re- 
search. The result would be inaccuracy, indef- 
initeness and misconception. A student often re- 
peats glibly, "A verb is a word that expresses 
action," but when requested to give an example 
he is unable to do so. 

In making the step of comparison, sufficient 
data should be used to cover the essential elements 
of the problem and thus to insure a correct gen- 
eral conclusion. When this is done, the statement 
of the conclusion or definition should be left to the 
student. Book definitions, unless fully compre- 
hended, add little either in thought or language to 
a student's stock of knowledge. If the student 
understands the meaning, he can easily word the 
statement of his conclusion independently, since 
he has the data from which he developed the gen- 
eral notion. The text book statement then would 
be needed only as a guide in elegance or concise- 
ness of expression. The value of elegant expres- 
sion should be emphasized. Colloquialisms should 
be always discouraged. 

Application. — The lesson problems having been 
presented, and the conclusion reached, there re- 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 225 

■ 

mains an essential step, that of application. The 
ideal held up for the student of the past was, 
" Learn today that you may use and enjoy tomor- 
row.' ' The modern precept is, "Learn to use and 
enjoy today and you will be prepared to do so 
tomorrow. ' ' 

Training must be given in the application of Knowledge 
knowledge as much as in acquisition. Knowledge tri^stc 
has no intrinsic value. Only so far as it is usable v 
does it become power. 

Application quickens thought and initiative, de- 
velops accuracy and efficiency. Formerly in the 
laboratories, the student tested his principle for 
verification. Now, in the shops, in school, and in 
the home he actually works out and produces fin- 
ished products as proof of the principles learned. 
He is no longer a mere dreamer, but a successful 
producer, with science for his guide. 

From the kindergarten throughout the school 
course, the child of the present has before him 
tremendous possibilities. Upon whatever task he 
labors, he sees the ultimate end of his efforts, and 
thus receives inspiration to bend his energies to- 
wards its accomplishment. For example, in a les- 
son in reading, a beautiful poem becomes a per- 
sonal treasure which he may share with others ; a 
good story learned receives added value in that it 
may be retold. Everything given in the school 
course is taken as a new contribution to his stock 

Of knowledge. The formal 

° steps of the 

Often a misconception of the purpose of the areSnm. 
Formal Steps of Eecitation causes objections to %SESm$& 
their use in instruction. The steps themselves are to *£» p™*" 8 - 

x es ox tnougut- 



226 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

of no value, but serve only to give to instruction 
the order which corresponds to the processes of 
thought. It must be understood that each of the 
Formal Steps is applied in presenting any com- 
plete thought unit. But the teacher should use 
these, however, as a scientific process and not as 
mechanical forms. The length of the recitation 
period will usually correspond to the time re- 
quired to present a thought unit. It is often the 
case, however, that a lesson problem may be 
grouped into a number of smaller thought units, 
better to serve the needs of the class. This plan 
necessitates the use of each step in the presenta- 
tion of each unit. Sometimes, a thought unit is of 
such length as to require several recitation periods 
to complete it ; in this case the various steps are, 
nevertheless, used as the thought develops. 

In the development of The Lesson in its three 
phases, The Lesson Assignment, The Lesson 
Preparation, and The Eecitation, no attempt has 
been made to introduce new theories. The pur- 
pose has been to present in a simple and direct 
manner some of the most important principles in 
the solution of the problems of the Lesson. The 
ideas advanced in the discussion have been gath- 
ered largely from reading and observation, sup- 
plemented somewhat by experience. The termin- 
ology used has been adopted from well known au- 
thorities on the subject. 

For the convenience of those who may desire a 
more advanced and complete study of The Lesson 
and its problems, the references below are given 
as sources : 



THE LESSON CONTINUED 227 

McMurray — How to Study and Teaching 
How to Study. 

McMurray — The Method of Recitation. 

Struger — A Brief Course in the Teaching 
Process. 

Dewey — School and Society. 

Hamilton — The Eecitation. 

Coinpayre — Lectures on Pedagogy. 

Roark — Method in Education. 

Monroe — A Brief Course in the History of 
Education. 

Angell — General Psychology. 



CHAPTER XVI 



TESTING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 



Exact infor- 
mation and 
definite plans 

necesssary. 



Plans of an 
architect. 



When undertaking an enterprise of any kind, 
the practical man studies carefully every problem 
connected with its execution. He strives for def- 
inite ideas concerning every detail of procedure. 
He is particular in obtaining exact information 
relative to the cost and the liability he incurs in 
assuming the responsibility of the business. 

It would repay the teacher, before planning his 
work for the year, to study critically a capable 
architect's plans and specifications for the con- 
struction of a great building. These could be stud- 
ied profitably, because they impress the impor- 
tance of having definite directions as a guide in 
the performance of complicated duties. 

In his study of the specifications, he should note 
how particularly every detail of the required 
building is described; how carefully the various 
interests are protected; how clearly the respon- 
sibilities of the contracting parties are defined and 
prescribed; how explicit are the directions con- 
cerning the different divisions of the construction. 
He would find the following topics discussed 
plainly and intelligently : The Owner ; the Archi- 
tect; the Contractor; the Time of Completion; 
Preparation of Site; Excavation; Inspection; 
Progress of Work; Materials; Workmanship. 



TESTING THE RESULTS OE TEACHING 229 

No experienced mechanic would venture an esti- 
mate of the cost of the building, without a 
thorough understanding of the plans and specifi- 
cations, or without graphic details of special parts, 
drawings and elevations showing the building as 
it is to appear when completed, nor would he un- 
dertake compliance with the specifications with- 
out having a copy for constant reference. 

It would be interesting and instructive to note important 
the qualities aimed at in the building; strength, aualities - 
proportion, beauty and durability. 

If this study would cause the teacher to plan 
his work for the year, and to begin with a keener 
insight into its details, and clearer conception of 
what should be accomplished, the time devoted to 
such study would have been well spent. 

Too often, the teacher begins his year's work Definite plans 

..,,-_. .. °. J of ten lacking 

without definite plans. He is not sure that he to teaching, 
knows what to do, or how to do it. He is not well 
acquainted with the means or the material that 
he must use, nor has he even an approximate esti- 
mate of the amount of material needed. He makes 
poor provision for estimates of progress from 
time to time during the session of the school, and 
in consequence of this lack of definiteness he 
flounders during all the year, and despairs at the 
close of his contract. 

"Teaching school" is no more expressive of the 
teacher's real work than "building a house" is 
of the specifications of the mechanic. In the con- various roies 
struction of a building, the owner trusts to the teacher, 
architect for plans, inspection and supervision; 
in teaching school the teacher is the architect, the 



230 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

mechanic, the workman, and the inspector. He 
draws his own plans ; he writes his own specifica- 
tions; he supervises and inspects his own work, 
and he accepts or rejects it in the end. He is 
trusted more than the architect, the mechanic, or 
the workman, therefore, he ought to appreciate 
the greater trust and recognize the more serious 
responsibility. He should constantly examine 
himself, scrutinize his plans, and inspect the re- 
sults of his teaching. The structure he is trying 
to erect should stand when completed, and endure 
after he has departed. 

It is worth while for the teacher to inquire into 
his own educational status. The completion of the 
edifice he has been entrusted to build costs effort 
and skill. The question that Jesus, the greatest 
of all teachers, once propounded to his disciples 
is a very pertinent one for the teacher. 

"For which of you, intending to build 
a tower, sitteth not down first and count- 
eth the cost, whether he have sufficient to 
finish it, Lest haply, after he hath laid 
the foundation, and is not able to finish 
it, all that behold it begin to mock him, 
saying, This man began to build, and was 
not able to finish it." 

The work of the teacher for the year is to carry 

forward the building of a structure in the person 

of each pupil. At the end of the year he passes 

the pupil to another teacher, to continue the build- 

THe founaa- . i n S- The teacher must build on the foundation of 

SaJnoK?* the work done by the teacher preceding him, and 



TESTING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 



231 



must also broaden the foundation for the work 
of the teacher succeeding him. All are concerned 
in the structure. They all should comprehend, as 
some of its essential characteristics, the following: 

1. Knowledge of the realities and actualities of 

life, its duties and its beauties ; its purposes 
and responsibilities. The branch of study 
from which these materials are supposed to 
be garnered, are usually given in the curri- 
culum. 

2. Power to observe and to interpret what the 

mind perceives ; to recall into consciousness 
previous percepts and concepts, and to unite 
them into judgment; to think accurately, 
quickly and independently. 

3. Skill in utilizing all forms of knowledge, in 

self-expression as exhibited in speaking, 
writing, drawing, singing, and in the use of 
the hand and mechanical contrivances. 

4. Character as exhibited in habits of thought, in 

self-control, in conduct, in truthfulness, in 
courtesy, in firmness, integrity of life and 
purity of thought. 
These qualities give strength, symmetry and J^SffiSSl 
beauty to the mental structure of the pupil, and gjgjjgj.. 
when the session is ended, inspection ought to con- ggsof *«• 
sider all these items in determining the progress 
and fitness for promotion. 

Tests of the progress of the pupil should be fre- JJSgffl? 
quent. The teacher who does not constantly watch 
the improvement of the pupil, but waits till the 
end of the session to determine whether the work 
has been done in a manner that justifies his pro- 



232 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Opportunities 
for testing 1 
the results 
of teaching 1 . 



The teacher 
should have 
great liberty. 



The teacher's 
liberty should 
not violate 
principles. 



motion, and finding him unprepared for it, assigns 
him the same work again for the next year, has 
not justified the trust imposed in him. This plan 
would be like an architect's waiting for the com- 
pletion of the building, and then setting fire to it 
in order to ascertain if it meets the requirements 
of being fireproof, and finding that it burns, de- 
manding of the mechanic that he rebuild it the 
same way as before. 

The opportunities for testing come every day. 
The recitation, the study period, the play-ground, 
all afford ample opportunity to the teacher for 
ascertaining whether the student is acquiring 
those elements of education that the teacher has 
planned for him. The oral review, which should 
be frequently given, and the periodical written 
test, enable the teacher to estimate the student's 
growth in knowledge, in the power of independent 
thought and skill in expression. 

The teacher should have the widest possible lati- 
tude in his manner of presenting the subject or 
instructing the classes. In all mechanical work 
in which the hand operates on wood, metal, or 
other concrete substance, one may be directed ex- 
actly how to hold the saw or use the plane, but 
where mind operates upon mind, each teacher 
must respond to the inspiration that comes to him 
alone, and must do his work in his own way, with- 
out dictation or undue interference from author- 
ity. 

But while certain latitude must be allowed the 
teacher in all his work, still, his liberty should not 
be a license to ignore or defy the best thought 



TESTING THE BESULTS OF TEACHING 



233 



crystallized into unanimous verdict of those whose 
investigations, experience, and service have 
stamped them as authority on questions of educa- 
tion. , 

While the superintendent should not mar tne 
efficiency of his corps of teachers by unnecessary 
interference and needless suggestion, still since it 
is his duty to study educational problems, to guide 
his school along proper lines, and since he is most 
responsible for its policy and its ideals, the wis- 
dom of its methods and the efficiency of its instruc- 
tion, he is derelict if he does not note the nature 
of the instruction given, the spirit pervading the 
institution, and from time to time in consultation 
with teachers or in conferences of the faculty offer 
such suggestions or such directions as in his judg- 
ment enhance the efficiency and improve the gen- 
eral condition of the school. 

The promotion of pupils has always been one of J™£ s °K a ° y f s 
the most perplexing problems of the school. The aprowem. 
question presents itself from so many different 
view points; false ambitions so often clamor for 
undeserved honors, sometimes failure signifies so 
much to the student, that the granting or the re- 
fusal of promotion will continue a question de- 
manding the most thoughtful consideration and 
the exercise of the most clear-sighted judgment. 

To the novice, who believes that a spiritual at- 
tainment or a mental product may be expressed 
exactly in arabic numerals, that intellectual 
growth may be indicated with exactitude by a men- 
tal thermometer, an educational pair of balances, 
or a psychical meter, the problem has no more 



234 



PKINCIPLES AND PKOCESSES 



Promotion 
not a simple 
problem. 



What pupils 
may claim 
the right of 
promotion. 



The teacher 
is the logical 
judg-e of the 
attainments 
of the pupils. 



The teacher 
should con- 
sider all per- 
tinent evi- 
dence. 



complications than that of the addition of a series 
of numbers and a division to determine the ' ' aver- 
age," but to the veteran teacher, experienced in 
the actual work of the class-room, the problem is 
neither simple nor its solution in exact figures 
possible. 

The late Professor Simon Newcomb, America's 
foremost mathematician and astronomer, after 
years of teaching in the United States Naval 
Academy, said that he could determine the dis- 
tance to a planet and calculate its orbit and its 
specific gravity to any required degree of approxi- 
mation, but to determine with any degree of pre- 
cision the comparative standing of the students in 
a class baffled any skill that he had. 

The only claim that the student may urge for 
promotion is that he has met the demands of his 
class, and that he is capable of doing the work of 
the next succeeding class, or of discharging his 
obligations to the public upon graduation. 

The justness of this claim can be determined 
best by his teacher. Whether the means used in 
determining the answer is by the daily recitation, 
the oral examination, the periodic written test, or 
the term examination, the entire question, in its 
final analysis, is merely the opinion of the teacher. 

It is the right of every one in any station of life 
to form his own opinions, and the forging of these 
opinions must be made in his own crucible, and 
not in that of another, but as sacred as one's opin- 
ions are to him, he has no right to form them with- 
out competence evidence. 



TESTING THE EESULTS OF TEACHING 235 

There are certain well established principles 
that should guide the juryman in the box, the 
judge on the bench, and the teacher in the school, 
and in maturing his judgment he can not afford to 
be a law unto himself and ignore or violate prin- 
ciples so well established that they have become 
canons no longer to be questioned. 

No two instructors can teach alike, but there are 
fundamental principles that all teachers must re- SK^Suty. 
spect ; no two teachers form their estimates of the 
student in precisely the same way, yet there are in 
the making up of estimates also well established 
principles that should have recognition. 

In whatever way the teacher may test the re- 
sults of the student 's effort, he should arrive at a 
correct estimate. This estimate need not be so 
exact as to be expressible in Arabic notation, but 
he should reach a decision in a manner that makes 
him confident that his conclusion is safe, sound 
and rational. He should be convinced that he has 
given due weight to all pertinent testimony, and 
that there has been no element of chance in the 
formation of his verdict. 

His methods should not only give him the assur- 
ance of having obtained a just verdict, but they 
should be so manifestly fair, so searching, so ex- 
haustive that there is no ground for suspicion on 
the part of the student that the verdict lacks care- 
ful preparation from proper data. 

I suppose that it has been the experience of 
every superintendent that he had in his faculty 
some member whose failure to promote the stu- 
dent provoked constant complaint, while there 



236 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Verdict of 
the teacher 
should he so 
manifestly 
just that it 
commands 
respect. 



Ahuse of the 
test hy the 
"final" ex- 
amination. 



were other teachers who refused to pass a greater 
number and yet escaped at least open expression 
of dissatisfaction with their marking. 

Scarcely any teacher is so fortunate as to escape 
the charge of unfairness from an occasional mal- 
content, even if the charge is offered in excuse 
for self-admitted dereliction on the part of the 
student, but any teacher falls far short of his 
greatest possibility if he fails to impress the great 
majority of his pupils that he is not only impar- 
tial, but rational and just in his decisions. 

The rationality of the methods of every teacher 
should be so patent, that every other member of 
the faculty with whom he is associated is ready to 
defend him against criticism, and the superintend- 
ent altogether safe in assuring a complaining stu- 
dent that his contention is groundless. Any other 
condition in a school is unfortunate. 

There ought not to be an inflexible rule by which 
every teacher should measure the student. This 
would reduce all the processes of education to 
mere mechanics, and one of the gravest charges 
against the schools of today is that they are be- 
coming too mechanical. 

Beyond question, no one method of determining 
the status of the student has been more abused 
and misused than the so-called "final examina- 
tion. " The examination has its own place in the 
scheme of education. It should be permitted to 
keep its place and to perform its office, but it 
should not be allowed to usurp powers and func- 
tions that do not belong to it. 

Except in rare instances, the teacher does not 



TESTING THE RESULTS OE TEACHING 237 

need the examination in order to determine the 

status of the pupil. In these cases it may be used 

to remove any doubt in the mind of the teacher ■5«g£* toa 

and to show the student himself his true status, »S7 e to 

and thus relieve the teacher of any charge of m- JKjgg 1 of 

justice. 

Seeley says, in his "New School Management,' 
that some of the educational advantages of an ex- ^^^ 
animation are: fromseeiey. 

"1. It tests the ability to summon all of one's 
powers upon occasion for extraordinary exertion 
and to exhibit the knowledge and power possessed vaiueof 
upon a given theme. SSu« MiM - 

" 2. It trains the student in the use of good lan- 
guage, concisely put, under limitation of time. 

"3. It requires the exercise of judgment as to 
essentials and non-essentials. 

"4. It solidifies and classifies the knowledge of 
the subject in the mind of the pupil. 

"5. It shows both pupil and teacher wherein 
the preparation has been weak, or where it has 
proved unsatisfactory." 

He says again : 

"The examination should be a fair test of the 
work that has been covered, should be free from 
enigmas, and the language employed should be so 
clear that there can be no doubt as to the meaning 
of the question. er 

"The large proportion of a class that has been *XJeof " 
taught by the examiner, should pass, else the ques- *£*g *g£ s B . 
tions have been too difficult or the teaching has 
been bad." 



238 



PRINCIPLES AND PEOCESSES 



Baldwin says, in "The Art of School Manage- 
ment ' ' : 

' 'The examination should undoubtedly consti- 
tute what the pupil ought to know, or ought to be 
able to know. The examination should be a test 
of the ability and acquirements of the pupil, not 
of his power to memorize. 

"The questions should be pointed and clear, re- 
quiring brief and definite answers. 

"Principles, plain problems involving prin- 
ciples, essential definitions, leading features, and 
work to be done are the points to be pressed. 

"The examination should undoubtedly consti- 
tute one of the conditions of promotion. Is it the 
most prominent condition'? I think not." 

"White says, in his "Elements of Pedagogy ": 

"Teachers as a class over-estimate the progress 
of their pupils, and the more superficial the 
teacher the greater this f ailing." 

Frequent oral and written tests would tend 
greatly to remove misconceptions on the part of 
the teacher, and enable him to ascertain the con- 
dition of advancement of his class, without wait- 
ing for the final examination, when all defects dis- 
covered in the teaching are irremediable. 

It is not good policy to indicate in advance just 
what specific topics will be treated in an exam- 
ination, but when a teacher has made such an 
announcement he is bound by it. Whenever the 
teacher has given the class an outline, leading 
them to infer that it contains the essential topics 
of his subject, the complaint that in the examina- 
tion he went beyond the outline, or did not even 



TESTING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 239 

enter the outline is a just ground of dissatisfac- 
tion, because the teacher has not the right to mis- 
lead the student. 

When examination questions are placed in the 
hands of the student they ought to be not only 
clear, unambiguous and definite, but they should 
be written with unmistakable legibility. In me- JueSns 1011 
chanical execution the questions should be a per- gjSSlXa 
feet model for the answers that are to be handed uweuianwe. 
in by the student. 

No student ought to be refused a passing mark 
upon an examination based upon an illegible ques- 
tion paper. 

Payne says, in his " Education of Teachers": 

"It is manifestly unfair and unjust to spring Quotation 
surprises on the pupil, by demanding what he has 
not had an opportunity to learn. 

"As a preparation for setting an examination 
paper, the teacher should ask himself the ques- 
tion: What ground have I traversed with this 
class? What knowledge have I given these pupils 
a perfectly fair opportunity to gain? What de- 
gree of constructive power over new combinations 
have they had an opportunity to acquire? What JJJ5SS 
I want to insist on is absolute fairness in these g^gjj 
dealings with students. I have known at least one JIoqsT 163 " 
instance wherein one-half an examination paper 
bore upon matter which the class had never had 
the opportunity to learn. The first effect of this 
paper was dismay, and then a determination to 
offset wrong by wrong, so that the pupils, who 
never cheated before now resorted to cheating 
with a will. 



240 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

" Another principle, or rather the first principle 
stated in different form is : An examination pa- 
per shonld represent the state of the pupil's mind 
rather than the state of the teacher's mind. This 
is very far from being a needless caution. We 
are all in danger of putting too high a value on 
our acquisitions, especially when they are in any 
sense unique or exceptional. With this feeling it 
is natural to give such acquirement an airing, and 
the examination paper furnishes an attractive op- 
portunity. 

" Another principle to be observed is this: An 
examination paper should open up the highways 
and not the byways of knowledge, important dates 
and places, major facts, cardinal principles; not 
the trivial but the respectable. 

"Some things are so trifling that it is almost a 
disgrace to know them. An examination paper 
should have an air of dignity and respectability 
and the moral quality of fairness.' ' 

One of the strongest advocates of the final ex- 
amination test is Bagley. He says, in ' ' The Edu- 
cative Process": 

"This [examination] is the cap-stone of the re- 
Quotation view process. The very essence of an examination 
BaSey. is its formal character. So-called informal ex- 

aminations or tests may be valuable for certain 
purposes, but they entirely miss the virile virtue 
that the examination, in the strenuous sense of the 
term, possesses." 

But he adds : 

"The function of the examination as a test of 
the pupil's knowledge is not of paramount impor- 



TESTING THE RESULTS OE TEACHING 241 

tanee, but its function as an organizing agency of 
knowledge is supreme." 

The use of the final examination as the only test 
or the most important test is now universally con- 
demned by writers on education. 

It is unfair that the student, after spending nine 
months in the recitation room face to face with 
the teacher, must stake all his chances of promo- 
tion or graduation upon his ability to make a cer- 
tain per cent on a limited number of questions, 
sometimes carelessly prepared and made from the 
standpoint of what he ought to know, and not what 
he has been given the opportunity to know. The 
giving of undue importance to the final examina- 
tion creates a spirit of anxiety, uncertainty, rest- 
lessness and distrust of the teacher during the en- 
tire session. This state of anxiety is intensified 
by the knowledge of the fact, that in preceding 
sessions some have passed whose mediocre work 
during the entire session was currently known to 
the whole class, while promotion was denied to 
some who had been the acknowledged leaders of 
the class. 

The world makes some mistakes in its estimate 
of men, but the general verdict of the people at Theverdlet 
large is always safest, and though the teacher may 25KrtSe < * 
not err, the concurrent opinion of classmates, ^U^ lways 
when different from that of the teacher, will in 
nearly all instances become the verdict of the 
school, as a whole, for the simple reason that the 
teacher may not learn his pupils during the year 
but during nine months' continuous association 
they learn one another. 



242 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Quotation 
from Payne. 



Unfair meth- 
ods create 
antagonisms. 



Additional 

trials. 



Quoting again from Payne : 

"It is my belief that the almost universal antag- 
onism between students and their instructors, and 
the existence of a code of school morality quite 
distinct from that code of morals that obtains out- 
side the school, are due in a large measure to an 
injustice, not to say immorality, originally intro- 
duced into examinations by instructors them- 
selves. By means of his examination paper, a 
teacher may make himself the arbiter of his pu- 
pil's fate; he can condemn him to any degree of 
humiliation, can block his progress in the school, 
and can send him home on unjust principles, or 
by looseness or injustice in construing results, a 
teacher may decimate his class and spread a con- 
sternation throughout the school that is demoral- 
izing to the last degree. 

"In the hands of an unwise or unjust teacher, 
the examination paper becomes a sort of Gatlin 
gun, mowing down its score of hapless victims. 
"Woe to the school where this instrument of tre- 
mendous power is used unwisely or maliciously! 
It creates a secret hostility between teacher and 
pupil; arbitrary power, unjustly exercised, is 
offset by tricks and frauds on the part of the 
victims; and the school becomes the scene of 
sorry encounters between those who should be 
united by the ties of a common interest and a 
common respect." 

There is another evil that results from placing 
an undue importance upon the final examination. 
The student having learned that much or all de- 
pends upon the grade made in the final test, believ- 



TESTING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 243 

rng that all his efforts, record, his punctuality, 
diligence, conduct, assiduity during the session 
now coming to a close count for nought or at least Trusting- to 
for but little, beseeches the teacher for a second luck " 
or a third trial; either feeling that if granted 
a fairer test he can show an acquaintance with the 
subject or conscious of his imperfections, he trusts 
that the next set of questions may be on some 
phase of the subject that requires less scholarship, 
and that he may by some fortuitous and really un- 
expected circumstance pass over the "dead line.' , 
When a teacher has had under his instruction a 
class not too large for individual acquaintance- 
ship, for an entire session, has noted the work of 
the pupil from day to day, has made requisite 
tests, either oral or written, during the year, and 
has conducted the usual final examination at the 
close of the session, and has by weighing all the 
evidence in the case, judiciously, justly and wisely 
reached a verdict as to the status of a' student, the 
reversion of that verdict by another examination 
can not be successfully defended as soundly peda- 
gogical. 

Seeley says: "A certain college professor 
made his examinations so difficult that nine-tenths illustration 
of the students were bound to fail. A large part fromSeele7 - 
of his classes would leave the room upon seeing 
the questions, without attempting to answer them. 
As a consequence, the most of the members of his 
classes were conditioned, and therefore, compelled 
to take a second examination. This, however, was 
always made so easy that no one need fail, and 
thus the class would ultimately be advanced. " 



244 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Summary of 
principles 

governing* 
examina- 
tions. 



In a case of this kind, when a large part of the 
class failed they were justly entitled to a second 
examination, because there is no defense for the 
character of examination that so few could pass ; 
but the practice which permits the reversion of a 
judgment after nine months' trial and a rational 
examination is unsafe and it tends to establish an 
unstable standard. 

Applicants for a new trial in the courts are re- 
quired to show that the former trial in some im- 
portant particular was unfair, or that the verdict 
was unwarranted by the testimony in the case. 

To summarize briefly, the chief purpose of the 
final examination is not, in general, to enable the 
teacher to reach a verdict that he ought to have 
already reached, but if judiciously used it may 
serve as his protection ; that it should not be the 
controlling factor in the verdict ; that when used 
it should not enter a field not fully explored dur- 
ing the session; that principles and not details 
should be stressed; that the judgment and not 
merely the memory should be brought into requisi- 
tion ; that the examination should not be long and 
tedious ; that the questions should be unambiguous 
and legibly written; that the appearance of the 
question paper should be neat and respectable; 
that it should show evidence of careful, thoughtful 
preparation; that it should be taken from the 
standpoint of the student and not that of the 
teacher ; that the student remembers all the facts 
he has met with is of less importance than that 
he has acquired skill and power while learning 
these facts ; that examination periods should not 



TESTING THE KESULTS OF TEACHING 245 

be times of mental and nervous exhaustion, of 
anxieties, and heartaches ; that while the examina- 
tion should be so fair, so just, so reasonable that 
the diligent may enter it without apprehension, it 
should not be so simple and puerile that the sloven 
or the sluggard may find it a passport out of the 
territory that he has made no effort to possess 
or to explore. 

In no other manner can a teacher in so short a 
time so fully disclose himself as in the making of 
a set of examination questions. These often de- KofiS?*' 
scribe his whole method of instruction, portray his JSSSJtoa- 
ideals, show whether he has a comprehensive tKL2 ues " 
method or uses sets of devices, whether he elab- 
orate principles or drills in details and in tech- 
nicalities, whether he incites power of thinking or 
skill in copying, whether his instruction tends to 
produce original thinkers or servile imitators. 

Unquestionably it would be sometimes profit- 
able for the teacher to regard the examination pa- 
pers received from the students as his own exami- The papers of 
nation. If the examination has been properlv con- ti»piipii» 

-, i , -,.-... r r J are also the 

ceived and properly conducted it puts to the test ggw"* 
the wisdom, the skill, the efficiency of his instruc- aSSamey. 
tion. He has been trying for several months to 
accomplish a definite purpose, the material he has 
had is as good as the average furnished teachers 
everywhere, the conditions have been fairly favor- 
able, or if not, he has known what the conditions 
have been. He now makes his own test in his own 
way and the result ought to show how well he has 
done his work or in what he has failed; and I 
speak from personal experience when I say, that 



246 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Disposition 

of the exami- 
nation papers* 



Rights of the 
student. 



in all my career as a teacher I have never found 
a means of detecting my own weak points, and of 
correcting them afterwards, that has proved more 
genuinely helpful and practical than the careful 
and critical study of the examination papers of 
my own students. 

The examination period over, what disposition 
should be made of the papers of the students? 

If the examination has been of so great impor- 
tance as to have a period set apart to it and the 
regular work suspended for it ; if the teacher has 
the right to demand this ordeal of the student, 
then it is the unquestioned right of the student 
that whatever he has written be read with that de- 
gree of carefulness, patience and fairness, that he 
has been expected to exhibit in the ordeal through 
which he has passed and to which the teacher has 
attached so much importance. No teacher can 
disregard this right of the student ; the examina- 
tion might in every other respect be characterized 
by wisdom, fairness, and justice, and every ele- 
ment of merit in the examination be annulled by 
careless, thoughtless and indifferent work in 
reading and marking the papers. 

The student has still another right. If the ex- 
amination has been given to disclose the status of 
the student and to ascertain the defective places 
in his work, he has a right to know where these 
defects lie, merely marking the paper for the pass- 
ing mark is not enough. Whether the marked pa- 
per should be returned to the student, we cannot 
now consider, but the right of the student to know 



TESTING THE BESULTS OF TEACHING 247 

in what respect he has been found deficient, is un- 
questionable. 

At a glance one might suppose that the teacher 
and the pupil, and probably the parent of the pu- 
pil, are the only parties interested in the question Pupii not only 
ot promotion, and the only ones affected by an cemea. 
unwise or mistaken refusal of the teacher to pro- 
mote him ; but no teacher has the right to place a 
"condition" upon a pupil as he advances in other 
departments of the school unless the teacher has 
exercised every precaution and used all the com- 
petent testimony and disregarded all the irrele- 
vant and incompetent evidence in the case. 

The time necessary to the removal of conditions 
in one department is time taken from what is 
justly due other departments. The student loaded 
down with conditions by one teacher is frequently 
prevented on such account from doing creditable conditions 
work under several other teachers. one aepartl 

What shall take the place of the formal exami- other depart- 
nation? Nothing should take its place. It should ments ' 
stay in its own place and perform its own func- 
tions, and not usurp those of all other processes, 
and while it is kept in its own place it should be 
kept sane, sound, rational, and helpful, and be 
made an inspiration instead of a nightmare to the 
school. 

No one could recommend the adoption of the 
other extreme — the close marking of every stu- 
dent as he stands in recitation every day. There 
is no greater travesty on teaching than a person 
at one end of the room with class roll and pencil 
in hand waiting for a pupil to finish a sentence to 



Daily marks. 



248 



PKINCIPLES AND PKOCESSES 



Acquaintance 
with the pupil 
imperative. 



Teachers 
cliff er in 
ability to 
teach num- 
bers. 



indite opposite his name some letter, numeral, 
hieroglyphic or other symbol indicative of the 
value of the answer given by a student while mak- 
ing a hopeless effort to think under conditions so 
unnatural. 

Natural but effective means of recording the 
daily work of the student, frequent tests, whether 
oral or written, judiciously used, obviate much of 
the evils of the formal examination ; but after all 
methods are tried, all experiments made, all de- 
vices used, there is nothing, that in accomplishing 
effective teaching and in reaching a correct ver- 
dict concerning the standing of the student can 
compare with an acquaintance with the student 
himself. 

Not to know a pupil is not to teach him. The 
teacher who being asked by the parent at the end 
of a session of nine months how his child has pro- 
gressed, must refer to the books before answering, 
admits failure in one of the vital processes of edu- 
cation. 

Should the teacher urge the impossibility of 
learning all the students of large classes, he but 
confesses his own limitations and admits that the 
number he can really teach is comparatively 
small. 

Unquestionably some teachers can instruct 
greater numbers than others ; some men make ex- 
cellent captains of companies, but can never suc- 
ceed as commanders of regiments ; but the teacher 
who will systematically study how to learn his pu- 
pils, how to learn large classes of stndents, who 
will recognize that it is as much his duty to learn 



TESTING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 249 

the student as that of the student to learn the text 
book, will soon have his capacity for learning per- 
sons multiplied beyond his most sanguine expecta- 
tions. The teacher who can no more than call the 
student by name, has a decided advantage over the 
one who has not learned to do even that much. 
Payne says again : 

"In very large classes, it may be said, individ- 
ual instruction becomes impossible, and many fail- 
ures, are the consequence; but evidently these 
pupils lacks opportunity through no fault of their 
own; either their progress should be slower in or- 
der that it may be surer, or the severity of the 
examination should be modified. A large per cent 
of failures in examination is proof positive of poor 
work at^some point on the part of the instructor." 

A serious problem of the teacher then, who goes Teacher 
into a school in which the classes are large, is to Steici earn 
learn how to conduct large classes, to learn many torffe classeB - 
names and faces, dispositions and natures, and 
failing to do so not to charge his failure on the 
student's side of the ledger but to admit his limi- 
tations and treat the student accordingly. 



CHAPTER XVII 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 



The old and 
the new view 
of school 
discipline. 



The old view 
of the child. 



The Modern View of School Discipline. — In the 

preceding chapters frequent mention is made 
of the changes that have been wrought in recent 
years in all the arts and activities of modern life, 
Out nowhere else has there been a more complete 
transformation than in the modes and the motives 
of school discipline. 

The old method repressed the spontaneity of the 
child, the new encourages and directs it into ways 
of usefulness. 

Old books on the methods of school government 
were devoted largely to the enumeration of rules, 
regulations, and modes of punishing the unlucky 
pupil who, wittingly or unwittingly transgressed 
the law of the school or refused to respect 
authority. 

The old method was based upon the theory of 
the child's innate depravity ; the new method upon 
its possibilities. In former times the reputedly 
good disciplinarian was he who detected the great- 
est number of infractions of rules, devised for vio- 
lated law the greatest variety of penalties, and 
who was also the most relentless in the infliction 
of punishment. 

Modern society has moderated the severity of 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 251 

punishment of criminals guilty of almost all mienewview 

/.« -, i ,1 n ii i ,i i i of the child. 

offenses, and both the school and the home have 
ceased to regard the child as a culprit whose tend- 
encies are all towards evil. 

The Purpose of Discipline. — The chief ends of 
discipline and all other phases of school govern- 
ment are the development in the pupil of the ca- 
pacity for self-control ; to inculcate in him the love 
of the right and the will to choose it when immedi- 
ate stimulus and natural impulse strongly impel 
him towards a different choice; to lead him to 
trust and respect himself, and to accord cheerfully 
to others their rights and privileges ; in short, the 
ultimate end of school government is the develop- 
ment of character. 

To be more specific or concrete we may say : 

1. There must be order in the school during the 
daily exercises and comparative quiet during the Necessity for 
study periods. When the pupil is taught to find order - 
and to keep his own place in the school-room and 
on the play-ground, not to obtrude where he does 
not belong or interfere with other pupils in the 
performance of their work or in their play, he is 
being trained to conform to conditions imposed by 
law, society, or convention, and to discharge the 
duties of intelligent citizenship. 

No one need expect that order in any school will 
be at all times perfect. So long as human nature 
is human nature there will be jars, disputes, quar- 
rels and conflicts among individuals whose inter- 
ests or opinions clash in their work or in their 
play. These conflicts are inevitable. In fact, they 
denote virility and their occurrence is by no means 



252 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The -wort of 
the pupil 
must "be 
required. 



The elements 

controlling 1 
power. 



Will power. 



a symptom of degeneracy into savagery. The 
teacher should expect some outbursts, and if he 
is wise he anticipates them, is prepared for them 
before they come, grasps the situation and re- 
stores order calmly and quietly and reduces to a 
mere ripple what might, if injudiciously managed, 
have developed into a maelstrom. 

2. The work assigned the student must be done. 
Habits of indolence and procrastination must be 
prevented. The school-room should be a busy 
place where every one is intent on some phase of 
school work. Earnestness and animation should 
mark every moment of the study hour, and the 
recess period should not have a loafer or a loiterer 
on the play-ground. 

Elements of Efficient Control. — The responsibil- 
ity for school government devolves upon the 
teacher. Though he may have many other essen- 
tial qualifications of the true teacher, a blunder in 
government is sometimes disastrous. Some qual- 
ities of mind and disposition are indispensable to 
the teacher in the discipline of the school. 

1. Will power is necessary to control a school. 
A vacillating teacher fails to inspire respect for 
his authority. The guiding hand should be gentle, 
but it must be always firm. The teacher should 
be at all times deliberate even in what may be to 
him a trifling matter, but when he has rendered 
his decision, it should not be reversed through ca- 
jolery or blandishment of the pupils. 

2. Self-control is imperative if the teacher con- 
trols others. Anger is always an unmistakable 
sign of weakness. Trifles ought not to be allowed 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 253 

to disturb the teacher's equanimity. To be an- 
noyed by infractions of regulations or discon- 
certed by unpleasant occurrences is evidence of Self control, 
shallowness of character. The brook makes a 
great ado over the stone that is thrown into its 
path, but when a boulder is dropped into its chan- 
nel the mighty river flows smoothly on. Irritabil- 
ity on the part of the teacher begets among the 
pupils disorder, inquietude and uncertainty that 
render effective work extremely difficult. 

3. The teacher should be rich in sympathy. In 

more senses than one he is in loco parentis. He sympathy, 
should be helpful in all the youthful ambitions and 
undertakings and a refuge in time of trouble and 
misfortune. The teacher to whom his pupils can 
come confidently when in trouble or even in dis- 
grace has very nearly solved the problem of dis- 
cipline. 

4. The teacher should have self-confidence. 
Self-confidence is not egotism. An egotistical 
teacher is a misfit, but self-confidence is a convic- 
tion, depending upon past preparation and experi- 
ence that he can accomplish what he undertakes. 
Self-confidence begets that composure and equa- 
nimity of mind that inspires the confidence of aenoe. 
others and make them willing to be directed. 

5. The teacher should be candid. The young 
child entrusted to the direction of a hypocritical 
teacher is unfortunate. The tragedy of it is that Caador 
the child soon looks under the mask and discovers 

the sham and begins early in life to distrust 
everybody and to dissemble himself, repaying 
deceit with deception. 



254 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



School regula- 
tions. 



Principles 

governing- 
school 

regulations. 



School Regulations. — In any organization of 
individuals some sort of regulations is necessary. 
Societies have their by-laws, clubs their constitu- 
tions, state legislatures are constantly enacting 
laws, all for the purpose of defining the rights of 
members or of citizens, giving limitations to priv- 
ileges and for determining by fine, penalty or pun- 
ishment the refractory or the criminal. It is nec- 
essary that any school have well defined regula- 
tions ; that these regulations be thoroughly under- 
stood by teachers and students. The nature of 
the regulations will depend to some extent upon 
the grade of the school, its method of instruction, 
whether the departmental plan is used ; or whether 
the students are mostly boarders. 

The principles governing the nature of the regu- 
lations are, however, the same for all classes of 
schools. 

1. Eegulations should be positive rather than 
negative. It is better to require truthfulness than 
to forbid lying; to demand attendance upon 
classes than to condemn wilful absence. 

2. Regulations should be reasonable and their 
necessity should be obvious to the pupils. 

3. Regulations, when possible, should be gen- 
eral rather than particular, but when occasions 
arise for specific regulations, they should be made, 
and the necessity for them explained. 

Enforcement of Regulations. — All regulations 
should be enforced. It is not the province of the 
pupils to discriminate among them, deciding which 
ought to be, and which need not be, obeyed. No 
regulation that can not be satisfactorily enforced 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 255 

should be promulgated, but when once promul- 
gated it should be enforced or repealed. 

The best general means of securing compliance 
with school regulations by the pupils is to furnish Means of en- 
them an abundance of work and play, rationally iSnf. reffu " 
divided. Most of the disorder and disobedience 
in the school is the result of lack of employment. 
Pupils who are busy and interested in the work 
of the class-room, gymnasium, the workshop, or 
the play-ground are seldom troublesome on ac- 
count of misconduct. 

The cultivation of proper incentives, leading to 
a broader view of school life, is an effective means 
of raising the standard of conduct and infusing a 
spirit of conformity to principles of justice and 
reason. 

By all proper means, by the reading or telling 
of stories to young pupils, by lectures with bio- 
graphical illustrations to older ones, with constant 
illustrations by .example to those of all ages, the 
best ideals of life and of conduct ought to be pre- 
sented with sufficient frequency to make this fea- 
ture of education prominent in the school. 

When appeal to honor and to the higher ideals 
of life prove ineffectual in individual cases, then 
a resort to penalties becomes necessary. 

Penalties and Punishment. — The object of pun- 
ishment is to reform the offender and to set an 
example for others. Unless some penalty were Penaltlea 
imposed for violation of regulations, the regula- 
tions themselves would be in many cases inert and 
useless. 

Principles Governing Punishment. — 1. Penal- 



256 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Principles 
governing 
penalties. 



Reproof , rep. 
rimand, and 
suspension. 



ties should be more certain than severe. It is the 
certainty of punishment that deters those inclined 
to be law-breakers. Punishment that is too severe 
will not receive the approval of the school, and it, 
therefore, tends to create a spirit of antagonism 
between teacher and pupil. 

2. There should be a sequence between the 
offense and the penalty. For example, wilful 
absence for recitation — "cutting class" — should 
be punished by recording the grade of zero for 
the recitation, and requiring the offender to re- 
produce the lesson at some future time. 

3. The penalty for violation of privileges 
should be the withdrawal of the privilege. For ex- 
ample, the student who conducts himself improp- 
erly, is quarrelsome, or uses indecent language 
on the play-ground, should be denied the privilege 
of the grounds until there is some assurance that 
the reprehensible conduct will not be repeated. If 
the general conduct of the student has been such 
that appeal to higher motive, reproof, or repri- 
mand fails, suspension of the privilege of the 
school, class-room, and play-ground may have the 
effect desired. 

Among small children, reproof, reprimand, and 
sympathetic direction seldom fail, even when the 
conduct has been extremely reprehensible. In this 
the child is the main one to be considered. In 
schools for adults the school itself must also be 
considered; and when the conduct exhibits gross 
moral turpitude it is unsafe to trust to any re- 
medial punishment, and it is best for the school 
that the offender be required to sever all relations 
with it. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

PLAY AND ATHLETICS IN EDUCATION 

Nothing impresses more vividly upon one the 
accomplished revolution in educational thinking 
than the changed conception of the place of play Jllnomfnoa 
in the school. Play is the universal phenomenon of you 
of youth. It is one of the earlier instincts to de- 
velop in the child (due perhaps to a generous sup- 
ply of nourishment furnished by the parent). It 
is likely to cease later in life, when the struggle 
for existence and the altruistic effort to supply 
one 's dependents render greater economy of effort 
necessary. The instinct of play immoderately in- 
dulged after such economy has become necessary, 
and so leading to individual want or the suffering 
of dependents, has naturally and correctly been 
condemned as a vice. 

But going beyond the limits of legitimate infer- 
ence, the adherents of the ascetic ideal in educa- 
tion, who have believed in producing the perfect . ^ 
man by lopping off whatever is superfluous or re- aren seldom 
prehensible have been anxious to quell the instinct p ay ' 
of play as an activity ill befitting one engaged in 
the serious occupation of gaining an education. 
This is said to be the case with the Chinese school- 
boy, who never plays. For centuries monk and 
Puritan have frowned on play, but it has been 
either a bitter victory or a vain fight. 

A different tendency in education, which must 



258 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Impetus to 
play "by 

Koiisseau. 



Modem at- 
titude toward 
play, sympa- 
thetic. 



Two kinds 
of play. 



The child 
imitates. 



have originated wherever parents found their 
sweetest music in their children's laughter, was 
gathered and given form and impetus by the vol- 
canic genius of Rosseau. It declared that the nat- 
ural, and that alone, was good, because God had 
made it, whereas, man, by his ignorant zeal, 
spoiled all he mistakingly sought to improve. 
Pestalozzi and his followers continued the argu- 
ment, setting forth that development, and not 
pruning, is the normal educational process, hence, 
while play might be directed, it should by no 
means be stopped. Froebel systematized play in 
education, and gave it a philosophical basis. 
Marie Montessori would guide the free activity, 
which is the innermost characteristic of play, into 
eduactional aspect by furnishing proper materials 
and conditions. 

Lighted by the results of recent research into 
the nature of the child, the modern attitude to- 
ward play is in general decidedly sympathetic. It 
is easy to distinguish two kinds of play. The first 
is the play that rehearses the experiences of our 
ancestors. As the child is in many ways only a 
recapitulation of the past, so the natural path of 
discharge of his energy is in the line of ancestral 
activities. Thus war and the chase were the an- 
cient counterparts of football, "tag," and "hide- 
and-seek," and all their variations. 

In the other kind of play, equally distinctive, the 
child imitates what he sees adults do. Everyone 
can recall numerous examples of this. By these 
two phases of play activity, drawn from the past 
and the present, the child is ever fitting himself 



PLAY AND ATHLETICS IN EDUCATION 



259 



for the place he is to fill in the future. The child 
that does not play loafs just as much as the man 
that does not work. Hence, the significance of the 
modern epigram, "The child without a play- 
ground is the father of the man without a job." 
There are those who prefer to fear the effect of 
play on the serious work of the school, and to 
scorn the modern attention to play as an exhi- 
bition of "soft pedagogy. " Perhaps this comes 
from a superficial view of play as of a single nat- 
ure and contrasted with work, whereas, really it 
is of a twofold nature, with both aspects most in- 
timately related to work. If all activity is 
abstractly divided into work and play, we may 
say that with work there is always some ulterior 
result that is looked upon as the reward for it, 
while in play the activity itself is its own suffi- 
cient reward. It is readily observed that in real- 
ity the distinction is by no means clear, but most 
concrete activities have some of both elements. 

A diagram may help to make clear the two kinds 
of play and their relations to work. Let the space 

between the curve 
D K E and the rec- 
tangular axes X X' 
and Y Y' represent 
activity, and the 
rectangle WORK 
represent work. Jj£ kana 
Then the remaining 
space, representing 
play activity, is divided into two parts, a 
lower part at the right of the rectangle, which 




260 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

we may call sport, and an upper one above 
the rectangle, that we may denominate art. 
As civilization has progressed the rectangle 
WOEK has shortened its base and increased its 
altitude; that is, it has dropped off many of the 
activities now known as sport, and has incorpo- 
rated, little by little, territory from the realm of 
the artistic. Then while the sports, real or con- 
ventionalized as games, link us to the past the 
arts open up to us the future of civilization. By 
the use of sports we add strength to our bodies, 
as Antaeus renewed his by falling back upon the 
earth, and by the use of art we increase the 
vitality of our souls. The singing and the music, 
whether in performance or passive enjoyment, the 
art work of the pupils, .their enjoyment of school- 
room decoration and the architecture of the school 
building and school grounds, all alike are a part 
of the play activity. Huxley refers to "the great 
source of pleasure without alloy, the serene rest- 
ing place for worn human nature — the world of 
art," as a frequently neglected field of education. 
Yet, while this realm is worthy of attention, it is 
the realm of sport that at present commands the 
deep concern of educators. A restatement of the 
school values of play may be of service in classi- 
fying the further discussion. 

Aside from the fundamental culture value of 
play, indicated in the preceding paragraphs, play 
has several other distinct values. 

The great natural obstacle to the teaching 
process is fatigue. It is caused probably by the 
physiological changes, both physical and chemical, 



PLAY AND ATHLETICS IN EDUCATION 261 

in the structure, the blood supply and blood com- 
position, and perhaps other factors, unknown or 
ill understood, in the brain areas that serve in values m 
some mysterious way as the basis for mental play ' 
activity. When study has continued till a state 
of fatigue is reached, attention is difficult to 
secure and maintain ; or, as we say, interest flags. 
If, now, considerable vital energy is present, and 
he who eats and breathes will have it present, it 
tends to find expression through some other 
channels, usually the surreptitious ones known as 
mischief. To restore the mental balance by rest- 
ing the wearied tracts and by working off the 
surplus energy in the relatively unused area, 
nothing is so efficacious as the free play of the 
recreation period. The beneficent effect will be 
noted in the easy order of the succeeding period, 
and the folly of "keeping in" for restlessness is 
thereby made obvious. This may be called the 
disciplinary value of play. Play in this sense may 
be regarded as a moral prophylactic against mis- 
chief, somewhat as Aristotle over two thousand 
years ago regarded music. 

Again, the social way of education, the devel- 
opment, training, and information one gains by 
living with one's fellows, is greatly furthered by 
play. Often in the history of education, when the 
method has been outrageous, and the subject 
matter has been worthless, as in the medieval 
universities and the "English public schools" of 
the eighteenth and the early nineteenth century, 
the meeting and mingling of students has saved 
the day for culture. The saying that the battle 



262 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Defects in 
character 
disclosed in 
play. 



Health, value 
of play. 



of Waterloo was won on the cricket field at Eton 
points ont a real truth. The qualities of leader- 
ship and loyalty, keenness of mental activity, 
persistence, regard for others, relative values, all 
may be cultivated on the playground. 

The hidden flaws of character become appar- 
ent in play, and are subject to elimination in the 
democracy of the play-ground. Public sentiment 
is a powerful factor for denouncing meanness and 
exposing its ugliness, and for enforcing righteous- 
ness in juvenile as in adult society. "Fair play" 
belongs to the terminology of both. 

The single health value of play is not to be 
overlooked. Of course, neither the school nor the 
occupations therein ought to be detrimental to the 
pupil's health, yet it is feared they often are. 
Therefore, it is essential to provide for periodic 
vigorous exercise in the undefiled oxygenated air 
of the outdoors, preferably stimulated by the emo- 
tion of play. Particularly is this necessary for 
the one who is "good at his books," whose mind 
needs a sturdy body to support it for proper use- 
fulness in the world. Such a child is only too 
likely to neglect healthful exercise, unless he is 
led to it by the social feelings engendered by the 
game. Certain games and plays that by bravado 
and youthful recklessness have been developed 
to a state where they themselves are dangerous to 
health, at least for a part of the children, need to 
be very carefully watched. 

For these reasons ample provision should be 
made for play in every school or other center of 
child life. The seriousness of the problem of 



PLAY AND ATHLETICS IN EDUCATION 263 

human congestion in onr large cities is perhaps 
more impressive in respect to the poverty of 
opportunity for children 's play than in any other Premises 
way. The making of play-grounds on the roofs made for 
of New York City schools compels admiration for 
its ingenuity, but is nevertheless pitiful. The late 
order in the metropolis of fencing off certain 
streets, by blocks, from traffic from three to six 
in the afternoon so that children may play, is well 
conceived. 

Fortunately, in most of the country a little fore- 
thought will secure sufficient space for play as 
well as sunlight and air. When land values get s *> ace needed. 
high in a community, there may be an inclination 
to economize in regard to space, which is not un- 
natural to the business men on a school board. 
For this reason school boards in many progres- 
sive communities look ahead for school sites in the 
direction of growth, while land is yet cheap. The 
very fact of such ownership has a very appreci- 
able real estate value, so it is generally facilitated 
by the promoters. 

The beautification of the premises, while im- 
portant, must not be permitted to infringe on the 
space for play. The finest ornament to any school 
ground is a group of happy, healthy children en- 
gaged in play. 

While space is the first essential, apparatus for 
play may also be valuable. What there is had g^ g appa - 
better be simple and safe than ornate and com- ** 
plex. The swing, the see-saw, the giant stride, 
and the slide, are common forms that solve the 
entertainment problem for some. Courts for 



264 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Athletics, 
organized 
play. 



Difficulties. 



tennis, volley ball, and basket ball, will help for 
others. With all these there must go constant 
supervision, close but tactfully unf elt, that on the 
one hand, the abuses of selfishness and rowdyism 
may not creep in, nor on the other, that the spon- 
taniety, which is half the charm of play, be not 
crushed. 

More reliance must be put on the organization 
of free games in which less skill is demanded and 
greater numbers can participate. "Prisoners' 



base," "pom-pom-pull away, : 



: cross-tag, 



"wood-tag," and many others established by law 
in the kingdom of childhood, are good for this 
purpose. The presence of a teacher or other 
guardian is absolutely necessary, both to make 
the play safe and to make it educative physically 
and morally. 

Athletics is organized play, generally for older 
students. It differs from the play of the younger 
children mainly in the more formal and rigid rules 
made necessary by the greater importance given 
to the principle of competition, as well as by the 
greater strength of the participants. The argu- 
ment underlying athletics is otherwise not differ- 
ent from the principles of play in general, though 
it is often discussed as if it were something dis- 
tinct and apart. This has led to a confusion of 
thought where clearness is very essential. 

The difficulties involved in the problem of ath- 
letics in connection with modern education are 
caused chiefly by the entrance of commercialism 
into the case. In this respect athletics differs not 
a whit from a number of other phases of our civ- 



PLAY AND ATHLETICS IN EDUCATION 265 

ilized life, where the love of money is the root of 
all evil. 

That whoever works faithfully should play joy- 
fully is only an inevitable inference from the uni- 
versal law of rhymth, of which day and night, 
summer and winter, ebb and tide, are larger 
examples. In student life, the vices of solitude 
and the coarse forms of rowdyism known as haz- 
ing, are the results of the neglect of open play. 
Hence, athletics should be organized to affect 
every student in school. Difficulties will be met 
in the realization of this ideal. The student who 
works his way may be forced to sacrifice his play 
to his purpose. The student whose physical con- 
dition m some point deviates irom the normal, should** 
must search out for himself a form of play that S e ^° 
will not be dangerous. This will require expert ''t^* 11 * 8, 
physical examination and diagnosis, accompanied 
by advice of highest professional quality. No 
form of play that is for the normal person dan- 
gerous to health, limb, or life, should be tolerated. 
If the dangerous features can not be eliminated 
by revision of rules, it is far better to eliminate 
that form of play as a whole. The plea that some- 
thing is needed to develop and exercise physical 
courage in this generation will hardly seem valid 
in the face of irreparable loss. 

Athletics is generally distinguished as games 
and "track work." The latter consists of inde- 
pendent events, in which individuals compete with 
other individuals for excellence or supremacy in 
some form of specialized physical endeavor. 
Various forms of track work are, running for 



Track work. 



266 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

different distances from fifty yards to two miles ; 
jumping, both " standing" and "running," and 
both ' ' high ' ' and ' ' broad ' ' ; pole vaulting ; throw- 
ing of hammer or discus, and "putting" the 
twelve or sixteen pound "shot"; and perhaps 
others, with modifications and combinations. In 
all of these, "form" is the accomplishment of 
greatest concern, that is, the particular manner of 
performance in which experience and science have 
proved the body can most economically and effec- 
tively exert itself toward the goal desired. This 
will generally be the most graceful way, for grace 
is only economy of effort in movement. A contest 
in track work, generally called a "meet," does 
not assume the nature of a conflict, for the oppo- 
nents are really not persons but performances. 
There is yet the danger of over-exertion, which 
danger can be reduced by regulation and compe- 
tent physical examination. 
In late years track work has received a needed 
iastfc SCh °" and deserved impetus from the organization of 
league*. interscholastic athletic leagues for holding meets 

by counties and districts, with a climax of inter- 
est in a state meet, a system susceptible of devel- 
opment to great usefulness. It is to be noted that 
the plan permits a number of contesting units to 
strive simultaneously, lessening the intensity of 
partisanship, and permitting a greater variety of 
results. This variety will increase with the 
growth of interest in the work in the local units, 
which need not necessarily be large. The inter- 
national "Olympic games" were in a way to 
accomplish as much for world wide civilization as 



PLAY AND ATHLETICS IN EDUCATION 267 

they did for the early Greek culture. Perhaps 
it was not mere coincidence that these two mani- 
festations of interest in this form of athletics were 
simultaneous. 

One difficulty in track work has been that a man 
of fine physique could compete successfully in a 
number of contests, which would discourage others anttetea 3 *" 
from entering. It is suggested that each contest- to one event - 
ant be forced to limit his choice to a certain event, 
or to one event in each form, as the hundred yard 
dash and the standing broad jump, etc. Then it 
is believed, more would enter into the spirit of the 
occasion, and the benefits would be multiplied. 

However, the track work has as yet been con- 
sidered a minor part of athletics. The annual 
"field day" at a college or school is usually a 
very tame affair, when compared with the "big 
games." 

And it is with the games that the state of per- 
plexity enters the problem. The principal games 
are football in the fall, basket ball in winter, and The principal 
baseball in the spring. Because the first men- sames - 
tioned game has achieved a popularity beyond 
that of both the others, the discussion following 
will apply particularly to football. 

The perplexity begins when the ideal in ath- 
letics is, to have a "winning team." The real xaeaisnouia 
"games" are only with like teams from sister a^ain*? 17 
institutions. Whatever playing is otherwise done eam " 
at home is only "practice." Most of the work in 
practice, however, is in the elements of the game, 
such as "tackling" a dummy, and is essentially 
a matter of drudgery. In order to have a winning 



268 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

team, it is necessary to have good material, hence 
preparatory schools are scoured for men with 
promising brawn and agility. Students of suit- 
able physical build, who have entered school for 
the serious purpose of study, are teased and 
wheedled into "coming out." Generally the 
glamor of "making the team" is a sufficient lure. 
Still, to produce a winning team of the best mate- 
rial and equipment, requires a skilled trainer or 
"coach," or perhaps a force of coaches. These 
study the game "scientifically" and plan "stra- 
tegical plays," "formations," and other concep- 
tions of military flavor. The plays are practiced 
with secret signals most assiduously, till the for- 
mations become automatic and the team plays as 
one man. 

Then the "players" must be inured to strenu- 
ous effort by persistent training, which will 
require several hours of hard daily work. 
Further, the members of the team must be cared 
for physically, fed on special diet, to bring out 
each man's maximum efficiency. 

All this is very expensive, therefore, the games 
must be made to pay. A season's program or 
schedule is made up. Contracts to play with 
other teams are made, specifying conditions and 
considerations. Season tickets and tickets for 
individual games are sold. A high fence shuts out 
the impecunious. "Grand stands" and "bleach- 
ers" provide more or less comfortable seating 
facilities for cash. The people, alumni, students, 
and citizens must be brought in order that ex- 
penses may 1 be met. The result is a game that 



PLAY AND ATHLETICS IN EDUCATION 269 

is a social event of the first magnitude. The 
successful team is glorified and adulated. The 
defeated team explains the best it can how it 
happened, and plans to retrieve its misfortune 
next year. 

It is not to be denied that athletics of this form 
has a certain social value. The spirit of loyalty Sf aSiaSS 
to one's group is one of the fundamental concep- 
tions of modern ethics, the group being extensive 
with the individual's breadth of vision to include 
his family or the universe. This loyalty, athletics 
undoubtedly fosters in a college and a college 
town. 

When a school can have a winning team without 
dishonesty, it probably has "clean athletics." 
But the temptation is strong, when conditions are 
otherwise. It is also to be found that frequently 
the game provides easy opportunity for gambling, 
with the usual consequent demoralization. 

An objection has been urged against the great 
amount of preparation and the expense necessary Too few sttu 
to produce a winning team, and that the great J{jj£"inth2 <>1 " 
majority of students take out all their exercise ^sSool* 
in yelling to cheer their team. The players whose 
bodies are already in good condition get more 
exercise than is beneficial, lose through physical 
weariness much valuable time, and frequently at 
the end of the season, when training "is over," 
suffer a serious relapse of physical strength. 

The way out of this perplexity is to establish Meaas ef imm 
certain fundamental rational principles, and cling j^? 8, ath " 
to them unmoved by undergraduate and alumni 
clamor, or by the spell of prevailing fashion. 



270 



PEIKCIPLES AND PSOCESSES 



Advantages 
of athletics. 



Team work. 



Clean living 1 . 



First: The main legitimate ends of athletics 
are health and fun. All others are subsidiary to 
them. 

Second: Practically all should partake in act- 
ually doing something with their bodies in some 
form of athletics suitable to their needs and 
strength, if it be only the regular brisk morning 
walk. 

Third: A physical and athletic director, with, 
this broader vision, should replace the profes- 
sional "coach" in the high school and the college. 
The director of athletics should have as much cul- 
ture as any other member of the faculty. 

With these principles established, the funda- 
mental play spirit, which is the natural heritage 
of uncorrupted youth, would again possess ath- 
letics, and commercialism be driven out. 

Advantages of Athletics.— Elementary football 
and baseball training is largely drudgery — the 
candidate for the team is either persistent or he 
is thoroughly imbued with the need of persistence 
before he gets through his preliminary work. He 
learns, as an adult, what he may have forgotten 
from his childhood, absolute, implicit, unquestion- 
ing obedience to those in command. 

Later on, he learns that successful football de- 
pends more upon team work, i. e., willing coopera- 
tion—a lesson, that if applied, will be of value 
throughout his life. 

Under the trainer he learns that clean living is 
one of the essentials of athletic success ; that he 
who abuses his body pays the penalty for his 
every excess. Out of his failures will come the 



PLAY AND ATHLETICS IN EDUCATION 271 

realization that he pays. Not only physically, but 
mentally and morally — a bit of human philosophy, 
a lesson in physical well being, that he might other- 
wise not learn until late in life. 

On the field he learns to think quickly, to act 
in an emergency, to apply previously acquired gjckthink. 
experience and knowledge instantaneously to new 
conditions that may arise suddenly and without 
warning. 

Athletics probably does more for the inculca- 
tion of a spirit of loyalty for the school or college Spirit of 
than any other one student activity, and the higher i°yaity. 
the plane on which athletics is held, the greater 
the loyalty and class spirit ensuing. The student 
loyal to his alma mater, and revering its high 
standards, literary and athletic, is a missionary 
for that institution to his last breath. 

How divergent are the opinions regarding the 

game is shown by the existence of one extreme 

which would eliminate it entirely as outside the Extreme 

* views con- 

sphere of educational institutions; and of the cerninffatn. 

r ' letics. 

other, which measures the success of a school 
chiefly by its gridiron accomplishments. But in 
between are the great majority of educators who 
believe that educational institutions exist pri- 
marily for intellectual purposes, but realize that 
many benefits to both institution and students 
may be derived from a well directed athletic 
department. 

The requirement, now almost or quite general, Requirement 
that candidates for the different teams must make Xa2SS ship . 
at. least a passing grade or be barred from the 
team, has gone a long way toward removing the 



272 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

stigma that used to attach to college athletics — 
instances where " special students" were per- 
mitted to matriculate and loaf through the fall 
or spring terms for the real if not ostensible 
purpose of playing football or baseball — these re- 
quirements have put college athletics on a quite 
different plane from what used to be. Players 
nowadays must be bona fide students, with pass- 
ing records. And we find many of them far above 
the average of their class — a tribute to clean liv- 
ing and thinking, and to the changed standards 
in college athletics. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM 

The Rural Problem. — Within the last few years, 
there seems to have arisen in the minds of many 
people the realization that there is a rnral prob- 
lem. Not much was said about this problem until 
the appointment of a Rural School Commission 
by the President of the United States but a few Exoaus f rom 
years ago. Since that time, sociologists have the country, 
directed their attention to it, and they seem to 
have reached an agreement that the exodus from 
the country to the city is its most menacing fea- 
ture. Doubtless, the danger of this movement to 
the city has been exaggerated; but that it is a 
danger is now recognized, and if we can not find 
something to take "back to the farm" those who 
have already gone, what ever can be, ought to be, 
done to give those who have remained in the coun- 
try more of the advantages of the achievements 
of the race than it appears they are now receiving. 

There has not been, as some appear to believe, 
any retrogression or deterioration of rural life. 
In recent years great progress has been made in No aeteriora . 
agriculture and all the arts that engage our rural g P n £j£ O01u 
population. They enjoy many advantages over 
the rural population of even ten years ago, there- 
fore, there must be some other reason for so many 
being drawn from the country to the city. 



274 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Causes of 
exodus from 
the country- 



Animation of 
city life at- 
tractive. 



Superior 
school facil- 
ities of the 
city. 



The causes for this exodus are many, some of 
which lie deeper in the problem than others. 
Hard, persistent work, dependence upon weather 
and markets, long hours and plain fare, monotony 
and isolation, all operate to discourage the boy 
or the girl of spirit from remaining on the farm. 
The meretricious desirability of the positions of 
bookkeeper, stenographer, or salesman, with fan- 
cied opportunities for rapid promotion, entices 
many from the greensward to the brick pavement. 
Even the shop, with its limit of eight, or even ten, 
hours of work per day, contrasts favorably with 
the conditions of the farm, when one fails to 
appreciate the difference between the song of the 
birds and the clang of machinery. Above all, the 
animation and excitement of the city, its thronged 
streets, and its numerous places for diversion and 
entertainment, constitute the "lure of the city" 
that draws them from the country. 

Many parents seek the city for the educational 
advantages afforded there for their children. The 
rural school has perhaps aided, positively as well 
as negatively, in the depopulation of the country. 
The rural teacher is usually a young man or 
woman from the city, whose influence tends to cre- 
ate in the pupils a desire for the city. The subject 
matter of the course of study is permeated with 
reference to the city and its many activities. The 
reading lesson, recounting how a poor boy became 
a merchant prince, the arithmetic problems, in- 
volving transactions of banks, etc., — all tend to 
create ambition to go to the city. 

Another cause for movement towards the city 



THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM 275 

is the general advance in the price of land, which Advance in 
in many sections of the country precludes the farm and 

.-. .-i., P n * • t ±1 ranch lauds. 

possibility oi land owning by the wage-earner. 

For some of these conditions, remedies have 
been discovered. Machinery has been invented to 
relieve many farming occupations of the arduous 
toil that formerly characterized them. Most of 
the field work, and much of the house work, can 
now be done with machinery. " The man with the 
hoe" is becoming historic. Methods of crop rota- 
tion, cultivation, and fertilization have been sub- 
stituted for former ' ' soil-mining. ' ' Seed selection 
and the keeping of records are rendering farming 
more business like. 

Telephone service and rural free delivery of 
mail have to a considerable extent dissipated the 
isolation of farm life. Automobiles and good Remedies for 
roads minister to social as well as industrial needs. 
Organized cooperation in marketing gives the 
farmer better prices for his produce, while coop- 
erative buying enables him to get more for his 
money. These improvements bring the farmer 
greater reward for his labor, and enable him to 
secure the means and the leisure to minister to his 
higher life. When these favorable conditions 
have become general, the inherent advantages of 
the country — pure air, cheap, plentiful and Whole- 
some food, quietude and peace, health and sanity 
— will be better appreciated. 

The Kural School Problem.— To popularize all 
these improvements, to furnish desirable oppor- 
tunity for recreation and the cultivation of social 
life, and to provide the educational facilities that 



276 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



The littla red 
school house 
of the past. 



No great im- 
provement in 
rural schools. 



parents desire for their children is the Rural 
School Problem. The solution of this problem 
"will be the chief means of keeping the young 
people in the country. 

To the usual speaker of the first century of 
American independence "the little red school- 
house on the hill" was an unfailing source of in- 
spiration. It is granted that the "red school- 
house" served its generation well. It relieved the 
illiteracy inevitable under pioneer conditions. Its 
results, limited though they were, satisfied the 
modest demands of the people of that period. 
"With its spelling bees and singing schools, it pro- 
vided an opportunity for young people to meet. 
A good teacher, however slight his opportunity 
for instruction, could no doubt be an inspiration 
to a rural community, when he mingled freely 
with the people every day. The abundance of 
work in the numerous different industries and 
occupations in operation on every farm a hun- 
dred years ago, afforded opportunity for a prac- 
tical education. 

It is no reflection on the past to say that it is 
gone. The adequacy of the "little red school- 
house" has gone with the tallow candle and the 
ox-team, yet the condition of the typical country 
school, before the advent of the improvements of 
the last twenty-five years, is still, in the main, the 
condition of the majority of the rural schools 
to-day. 

The school district served is small, perhaps on 
an average six square miles in extent. The only 
thought in the minds of the organizers was that 



THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM 277 

of shortening the distance to be traveled by the 
pupils in attending school. Sometimes neighbor- 
hood jealousies and individual scheming have been 
responsible for the division and subdivision of 
school districts. 

With the smallness of the district naturally 
follows the fewness of children, often less than JJjJJStie 
twenty, and occasionally less than ten. When the %£££&?* 
support of the school depends on a "per capita" school. 
state " apportionment,' ' the funds for mainte- 
nance of the school are consequently limited. If 
the property valuation is low, as is usual in rural 
districts, where the principal taxable value resides 
in the land, and when the levy is limited by law, 
even a local tax fails to add a great deal to the 
maintenance fund. 

Under these circumstances the school term is 
likely to be short, often less than six months. Any 
business conducted for only half of the year is 
not likely to prosper. Every school with only one 
teacher suffers from the necessary multiplicity of 
classes. But the teacher who can afford to work 
at a low salary for a short term is either young 
and inexperienced or is ineffective. The term 
being short, and the teaching inefficient, the in- 
terest in the school is evanescent. The children 
being few, the classes are small, some containing 
perhaps only one or two pupils. Hence the stim- J?iS2^s S 
ulus of numbers, and the mutual incitement to i^ooi! ma11 
mental activity, on which teachers of large classes 
can depend for motive force to animate the recita- 
tion, are absent in the average country school. 

The subjects taught often have only a slight 



278 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Frequent 
changre of 
teachers. 



I>ac!k of asso- 
ciation for 
the teacher. 



Education a 
paying- in- 
vestment. 



Necessity for 
local taxa- 
tion. 



bearing upon the practical needs and interests of 
the child, at least so far as the parents under- 
stand them. Under the circumstances, there is 
little reason to expect regular attendance of 
pupils. 

The teacher having failed in a season's work 
in the community, prefers to try another place 
next year, and the community is equally ready to 
try another teacher. Another thing that wears on 
the best country teacher is the lack of association 
with fellow-workers in the same field. 

Modern educational administration is not less 
ready than agricultural science to prescribe rem- 
edies for rural ills in its own field. In the first 
place it must be recognized that education is a 
business, which for its successful prosecution, de- 
mands adequate capital. It is common business 
acumen to invest money where it will bring a 
dividend. That education pays is a proposition so 
well established that no argument is necessary. 
The countries that have invested most liberally 
in education continue to do so most willingly. 
Entire dependence upon the bounty of the state, 
made possible by the foresight and statesmanship 
of the fathers, must yield to an intelligent pro- 
vision for local needs by a local tax. 

With sufficient funds the school term could be 
lengthened, say to eight months, the goal set by 
the Federal Commission of Education. This is 
possible even in the agricultural regions of the 
South, where the labor of children must be used 
for several weeks in the cotton fields. When the 
school is inefficient, parents are not apt to keep 



THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM 



279 



children in school when their services are needed 
at home ; but when the school is practical and effi- 
cient, most parents, whenever possible, will dis- 
pense with their services, in order to keep their 
children at school for the entire year. 

With more funds provided, better salaries can 
be paid, which will, if nsed with discretion, secure ESS/iaSer 
better teachers. These teachers being better paid KffiiTiSu 
and for a longer term, can afford to invest in pro- terschf>oU - 
f essional preparation for school work. 

The Consolidation of Schools. — There are still a 
number of difficulties which can not be overcome, 
even by an economical use of money. The small 
number of children in a little district, the conse- 
quent lack of sufficient numbers in a class to make 
the work interesting to teacher and pupils, the 
great number of classes, and the short time given 
on the daily program to any lesson, the limitation 
upon the number, variety, and advanced nature of 
the courses of work offered, all require a different 
treatment. The remedy that cures most of these 
troubles is the form of organization known as 
consolidation. 

An ordinary school condition in some sections 
of the country is the location of four schools in a 
territory of four miles square, with an average 
of twenty-five pupils each. If, instead of these 
four, there were one schoolhouse in the center of o/thfcofsoii- 
this territory, with three class-rooms and an audi- sSJu^cioois. 
torium, the school could be taught by three teach- 
ers. This would make it possible to grade the 
school. A primary teacher could teach the first, 
second and third grades. An intermediate teacher 



280 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Stimulus of 

numbers. 



More effective 
direction of 
play. 



The teacher's 

home. 

Problem of 
hoard for the 
teacher. 



the fourth, fifth and sixth. The principal could 
teach the seventh grade and two grades of high 
school work. This condition is not ideal, but it 
would be a great improvement upon the average 
conditions of the present. With three grades in- 
stead of six or seven, the recitation periods could 
be of more reasonable length and still permit the 
course of study to be given without much abbre- 
viation. 

Since, under this new condition, there would be 
from ten to fifteen pupils instead of two or three 
in a class, a different spirit would prevail in the 
recitation. Instead of being a drag, pulled along 
by the teacher's sense of duty, it would be a thing 
of power that would move "under its own steam.' ' 
The larger the number of pupils taught together, 
the more economical is the provision of laboratory 
equipment for the proper teaching of the sciences, 
agriculture, domestic science and manual training. 

On the play-ground a hundred children can be 
directed more effectively than twenty-five. Girls 
and boys can have separate play-grounds, and the 
larger and the smaller can have games suitable 
to their ages, there being enough of all classes to 
make the games interesting. The development of 
school spirit is an easier matter in a large school, 
and this spirit has a profound significance in 
moral education. 

The problem of the teacher's boarding, and his 
isolation can be solved by providing, in connec- 
tion with the consolidated school, a teacher's home 
for the principal, who should be a man with a 



THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM 281 

family. The home should be large enough to 
afford a place for the assistant teachers to board. 

Transportation of Pupils. — A problem of the 
consolidated school district is the transportation 
of pupils. In the hypothetical district described ^^ ort& _ 
above, most of the children could walk, and com- tionof 
munity cooperation could easily arrange for the 
transportation of the others. Public transporta- 
tion, at small cost, is provided in many places. 
Two conveyances driving five miles each, come 
within a mile of practically every point in the 
district. In a more sparsely settled country, pro- 
vided with good roads, it would be possible to 
have the district larger, perhaps six miles square, 
and to displace more small schools, necessitating 
additional conveyance. Since drivers are not en- 
gaged for the whole of the day, the cost of trans- 
portation need not be heavy. Sometimes older 
students, by this means, may defray their ex- 
penses and attend the school. The wagons are 
covered, and in extreme weather are heated by 
means of a small stove. Children meet the wagon of 

at the main road, on a definite schedule. The transporta- 
rules allow the wagon to wait for two minutes, 
but not longer. It has been the universal expe- 
rience where children are transferred that tardi- 
ness, as well as absences, is comparatively rare 
in the consolidated school. 

Under some circumstances the cost of the con- 
solidated school is less than that of the smaller 
schools displaced, but cheapness is not the object 
sought. If the cost of the consolidated school 
were double that of the schools displaced, it would 



282 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Cost of trans, 
portation. 



Difficulties of 
consolidation. 



The nival 
school course 
of study. 



still be more economical, because of the far better 
results achieved through the longer term, more 
regular attendance, better teachers, graded work, 
and division of labor. The principles of consoli- 
dation are applicable under a great variety of 
circumstances. Sometimes a centralization of all 
advanced instruction in a district high school will 
be more feasible than complete consolidation. 
Sometimes one village can afford to transport its 
entire school population to another village four 
or five miles away. 

A number of objections to consolidation may 
be found by those averse to the innovation. But 
the only serious one is the condition of the roads. 
Of course, there are sections of the country which 
are forbidding. However, the science of road- 
making and the increasing value of land make it 
only a matter of intelligent and persistent effort 
to convince any district of the desirability of good 
roads for many purposes besides education. In 
some instances consolidation has been a leading 
factor in stimulating road improvement. 

Course of Study for Rural Schools. — The course 
of study for rural schools should in some respects 
be modified to suit their special needs. There 
should be given considerable attention to the great 
industries of the open country, farming, dairying, 
stockraising, poultry keeping, apiculture, forestry, 
etc. The mechanical arts, woodwork, blacksmith- 
ing, saddlery, etc., might well have a place in the 
curriculum. Farm economics, farm accounting, 
and farm architecture are proper subjects for a 
rural high school. Domestic science, of a prac- 



THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM 283 

tical kind, and the allied arts, should not be 
omitted. But no book of itself is capable of ren- Theschool 
dering this instruction. Only the specially pre- farm, 
pared teacher, who lives in the district perma- 
nently, can make the course effective. A school 
farm of ten acres should be provided, and this 
should become a veritable demonstration farm, 
and made to supplement materially the funds of 
the school. The school premises should be the 
beauty spot of the district, as is universally the 
case in the progressive countries of Europe. 

A Large School Unit. — The unit of organization 
for effective rural education should be on a larger 
basis than at present, perhaps a fifth of a county 
(which for convenient distinction we may call a 
division), with larger consolidation districts, of 
from twelve to twenty square miles, so that there j, u tie S ofthe 
would be from ten to fifteen schools in a division, school board. 
Each of these schools should be represented on the 
division board by a local trustee elected by the 
qualified voters of the district. The policies 
affecting the division as a whole, such as stand- 
ards of efficiency in equipment, salaries, annual 
tax, the purchase of supplies, etc., should be 
decided by the division board in session. Purely 
local concerns, such as repairs, the nomination of 
a teacher, and anything in the nature of an emer- 
gency, should be the care of the local trustee. 
Each of the five divisions should be represented 
by a delegate on the county board, for the purpose £^®££* t th e e s> 
of electing the county superintendent. This 
plan would eliminate the possibility of the -county 
superintendent's nominating electors who would 



284 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Expert, pro. 
fessional 
country 
school super- 
vision. 



County super- 
intendent 
should Tbe 
appointed. 



favor his return. A plan of organization some- 
what resembling the one here outlined obtains in 
Kentucky. It is believed this plan of organization 
would remove the evils of ignorant and tyrannical 
control, abolish backwardness, and tend to more 
permanent tenure of the teacher's position. 

The rural school as well as the city school or 
any other enterprise using the services of many 
workers, needs supervision. Heretofore, the 
county superintendency, or school commissioner- 
ship, has suffered from the lack of professional 
basis and background. It has generally been a 
"political" instead of a professional position, 
which the limitations of local residence and other 
aspects of a political nature have prevented from 
accomplishing its greatest possibility for educa- 
tion. Doubtless, many of the superintendents 
have been fairly good teachers, though in some 
states few have had special preparation for the 
work of supervision. Doubtless, the great ma- 
jority have been conscientious in their desire to 
do their duty by the schools and by the teachers 
under their direction. Appointment by a county 
board, rather than election by popular vote, would 
obviously produce some beneficial changes — 
greater permanence of tenure, wider field of selec- 
tion for qualities that count for more in the actual 
work, the possibility of promotion from a small 
county to a larger county with greater salary — 
all these are to be regarded as measures that make 
a profession out of an occupation. 

Supervision of Rural Schools,— With schools 
centered in larger districts, so that a county 



THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM 285 

thirty miles square would have about fifty schools, 
the superintendent would be able to give super- 
vision that would be really effective. The single JJ^^JJf*- 
visit a year is but little better than none, but vision, 
by three or four yearly visits, the superintendent 
could be of real service to the school. Modern 
methods of conveyance would also add greatly to 
the superintendent's usefulness, for the time that 
counts is that which the superintendent spends in 
the school, and not that which is consumed on the 
road. 

As to the exact way in which the superintendent 
can help the school on the occasion of his visit, 
there may be considerable diversity, dependent 
upon the temperament of the superintendent and 
upon local conditions. The formal speech and the Th© wort of 

iliG county 

" hearing of a class" are to be discounted as at superin- 
best only forms of conventional courtesy. The 
general method should involve the forming of a 
detailed estimate of the school somewhat on the 
order of the score card. 

The following is submitted merely as a sugges- 
tion, subject to modification by experience. The 
perfect score would be one hundred points, thirty- 
five on physical and sixty-five on intellectual con- 
ditions, with a detailed value as follows : 

Outside Physical Conditions 10 

Fence in repair • . . 2 

Grounds free from paper and rubbish 2 

Outbuildings in order 2 

Play-ground apparatus 2 

Scrapers at door 1 

Cloakroom in order 1 



286 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 

Inside Physical Conditions 25 

Floor properly swept • 2 

Furniture properly dusted 2 

Personal cleanliness of pupils 2 

Arrangement of books in desks 2 

Sanitary drinking facilities 2 

Suitable decoration 2 

Good air 2 

Comfortable temperature 2 

Comfortable seats properly placed .... 2 

Efficiency Clean windows with shades 2 

Waste basket used 1 

Fuel supply neatly kept 1 

Stove polished • 1 

Blackboards free from scrawls 1 

Records neatly kept 1 

Behavior of Pupils 20 

Orderly passing 2 

Alertness in obeying 2 

General play at recess 2 

Courtesy 2 

Orderly entrance at bell 2 

Attention to work at seats 5 

Eef raining from unnecessary noise ... 5 

Recitation 30 

Readiness and enthusiasm of teacher. 5 

Spirit of class 5 

Pedagogical skill 5 

Pupils knowing the lesson 5 

Use of good English 2 

Clear enunciation 2 

Complete answers 2 

Social amenities 2 



THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM 287 

Naturalness of pupils 2 

Community Cooperation 15 

Active parents' and teachers' associa- 
tion 5 

^Regularity of attendance 5 

Punctuality . . . • 5 

The superintendent, accustomed to the work, 
can fill out the card with considerable accuracy 
in a short time. At the close of the day he can 
make a duplicate for future reference, and can 
send the original, with remarks, to the teacher. 
The teacher can know definitely in what the school 
is adjudged wanting, as well as in what it is com- 
mended. He can take his pupils into his confi- 
dence, with reference to the items in which their 
cooperation is necessary. The pupils will readily 
recognize that it is an enterprise in which they 
and the teacher have a common interest. If, on 
subsequent visits, the score stands higher, it will 
be a recognition of improvement, and vice versa. 

The superintendent has one capital opportunity 
to help his teachers, namely, at the annual insti- 
tute. Want of appreciation of its possibilities tuq county 
and the absence of intelligent scientific methods 



institute. 



& v 



have heretofore made its value more formal than 
real, and only moderately successful. It has 
always had an indirect value socially, causing old 
and young teachers to mingle, by which the 
younger distinctly have profited by the experi- 
ences of the older, and the older ones have gotten 
enthusiasm from the young. This has probably 
been worth its cost. 

The institute can not give either professional 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



Flans for the 
county in. 
stitute. 



methods of 
New York. 



The Chau- 
tauqua plan. 



training or make much contribution to the teach- 
er's scholarship, but it may strike the key-note 
for future progress in both. It can lend inspira- 
tion, by furnishing seed-thoughts for germination 
during the school year. 

Specifically, it is better to confine the attention 
of the institute to a few related subjects, and give 
them a thorough lodgment and connection, than 
to present a multitude of ideas, however excellent 
in themselves, if unrelated and failing of general 
incorporation. For instance, an "English" insti- 
tute might devote the first day to some leading 
principles of primary reading, the second to ad- 
vanced reading, the third to language and gram- 
mar, the fourth to composition, and the fifth to 
literature. The following year might see a 
"Geography and History" institute, or one on 
"Method and Discipline." 

The programme should be made with great 
care, in view of the needs that have become evi- 
dent, and long enough in advance to get the right 
things prepared to meet these needs. The insti- 
tute work of a state might well have a bureau in 
the State Department of Education, to provide 
expert direction. The State of New York has 
five strong educators, selected as institute con- 
ductors, the work in the various counties being 
spread over the entire school year. 

The plan of the so-called Chautauqua institute 
is for a group of five neighboring counties to 
have their institutes at the same time. By a joint 
committee, these counties prepare a common pro- 
gram, at least as far as it affects the principal 



The superia- 



THE BUBAL SCHOOL tBOBLEM 289 

feature. This feature is to secure five strong 
school men, each to give two addresses at each 
institute. The work of each day is planned with 
these addresses as the principal feature. But 
there is great danger that too great dependence 
upon national celebrities will weaken the work of 
the institute, defeat its purpose, and make a 
simple entertainment of a splendid working prop- 
osition. 

The superintendent should consider himself the 
apostle of educational progress, not satisfied to 
follow, but to lead bravely and persistently public 
opinion. To do this requires sympathy and tact, tendent" 
in order not to repel those with whom he must a leader, 
cooperate. The popularly elected superintendent 
finds this more difficult than the one appointed 
by a board. 

The organization of school rallies is a very effi- 
cient means, but there is need of both preparing 
for the rally and following it up with correspond- 
ence and conferences. 

Better buildings and more adequate equipment, 
better teachers, longer terms, larger salaries, pro- 
tracted tenure, should be the achievements of the 
superintendent that afford him most gratification. 

Finally, the superintendent should constitute count! super, 
himself a seeker for latent talent. With five thou- mtendent " 
sand pupils in the schools under his supervision, 
there ought to be some who by his attention could 
be set on the road to higher usefulness. A county 
superintendent started the boys' corn club move- 
ment, which was afterwards adopted by the 



290 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



What may he 
done with the 
school house 
as a social 
center. 



Federal Department of Agriculture. The super- 
intendent, on the occasion of his visits, might well 
be prepared to say or to show something that 
would make his return anticipated with delight. 
No work he could personally do ought to be so 
delightful to him as this relation with the chil- 
dren. 

The Schoolhouse as a Social Center. — A move- 
ment of late years, zealously advocated, is that 
of making the school the "social center " of the 
neighborhood. The school is adapted to this, be- 
cause in it the community already has a unified 
interest. The larger the territory served by the 
school, the more valuable will the social inter- 
course be, and the wider the circle of friendships 
formed. Even one meeting a month does much 
to relieve the evils of isolation and monotony inci- 
dent to country life. At least one room in the con- 
solidated school should be seated with the modern 
movable chair desks, and a supply of folding 
chairs kept in readiness for convenience. A lec- 
ture and entertainment schedule can be arranged 
under some circumstances, or home-talent produc- 
tions, with occasional exchange with another 
school, can be provided. The " refreshment " fea- 
ture has not been outgrown, nor has the old fash- 
ioned ' ' box-supper "lost its charm. Some definite 
object may be needed to furnish a motive for each 
meeting, such as a school library, in which the 
community may share the benefits. The reflex 
influence of this social enterprise can not fail to 
prove educationally beneficial. 

By thus unifying the various activities and in- 



THE RURAL, SCHOOL PROBLEM 291 

fluences in the country, there is reason to hope 
that the rural school problem can be solved, and 
its solution will help in. the solution of all the 
larger problems affecting residence in the country. 



INDEX 



Abstraction, 123. 
Acquisition, 155. 
Adams, 136. 
Aeolus, 94. 
Aeschines, 79. 
Agassiz, 109. 
Agriculture, 111. 
Algebraic Method, 141. 
Amoeba — Reproduction of, 4. 
Angell, 227. 
Angelo, Michael, 148. 
Antaeus, 260. 
Apperception, 119. 
Application, 224. 
Aristotle, 261. 
Arlington, 96. 

Assignment of Lesson, 154. 
Assimilation, 155. 
Athenian Education, 15. 
Attention, 127, 148. 
Athletics, 257. 

Advantages of, 270. 

Divergent Views of, 271. 

Forms of, 267. 

Importance of, 269. 

Means of Improving, 269. 

Scholarship Require- 
ment, 271. 

B. 

Bagley, 240. 
Baldwin, James, 238. 
"Barefoot Boy, The", 104. 
Bergen & Davis, 124. 
Betts, Dr., 132. 
Blackboards, 40. 
Bolton, Prof., 26. 
Browning, 79. 
Burbank, 96. 
Butler, N. M., 63, 64, 85. 
Scheme of Courses, 67. 



Calhoun, John C, 131. 

Candor, 253. 

Cartoon, 108. 

Cerebrum — Significance of 

Its Size, 11. 
Ceres, 93. 
Character, 155. 

An Essential Qualifica- 
tion, 73. 
Chinese, 257. 

Church, The — An Educa- 
tional Agency, 29. 
Classification, 123. 
Classrooms, Size of, 39. 
Cloakrooms, 41. 
College Entrance Require- 
ments, 61. 
Columbus, 134, 151. 
Comenius, 97. 
Comparison, 223, 224. 
Compayre, 227. 
Concept, 116. 

Formation of, 123. 
Concepts, Changes in, 120. 

Should Be Clear, 129. 
Conception, 126. 
Concrete to Abstract, 124. 
Congenital Traits, Transmis- 
sible, 10. 
Connotation, 122. 
Consolidation of Schools, 279. 

Advantages of, 279. 
Control, Elements of, 252. 
Conversational Method, 218. 
Correlation of Schools, 63. 
Cotton Seed, Its Products, 22. 
County Institute, 287. 

Chautauqua Plan of, 288. 

Methods of, in New 
York, 288. 



294 



INDEX 



County School Superintend- 
ent, a Leader, 289. 
Appointment of, 284. 
Course of Study, 53. 
Culture, 18. 
Curriculum, 35. 

Should Be Directed by 
Competent Authority, 
53. 

D. 

Deduction, 137. 

De Garmo, Chas., 68. 

Demonstrative Reaso ning, 

141. 
Demosthenes, 79. 
Denotation, 122. 
Dewey, Prof. John, 34, 151, 

227. 
Diana, 93, 95. 
Dickens, 151. 
Dictionary, 130. 
Diogenes, 86. 
Discipline — Changes in View 

of, 250. 
Purpose of, 251. 
Draper, Dr. A. S., 64. 
Drawing, 107. 
Dutton, Dr. S. T., 55. 

E. 

Edison, 10, 96. 
Education — A Paying In- 
vestment, 278. 

Biological Basis of, 3. 

Continuous, 48. 

Defined, 14. 

Liberal and Vocational, 
66. 

How Eegarded by An- 
cients, 33. 

Standards of, 34. 

A Universal Right, 33. 
Educational Agencies, 23. 

Formal and Informal, 27. 
Educational Aims, 14. 
Educational Commission, 63. 
Edwards Family, The, 9. 
Eiffel Tower, 96. 



Electives, 69. 

Wide Range of, Impossi- 
ble, 70. 
Eliot, Dr. Charles, 19, 110. 
Emerson, 76. 

Examination — Abuse of, 236. 
Value of, 237. 
Nature of, 238. 
Principles Governing, 
239, 244. 
Exodus from the Country — 
Causes of, 274. 
Remedies for, 275. 
Experience — Not Always a 
Guaranty of Effi- 
ciency, 85. 
Expression, 155. 
Extension Work, 49. 

F. 

Family Traits, 8. 

Federal Commission of Ru- 
ral Schools, 278. 

Field, Eugene, 157. 

Formal Discipline — Doctrine 
of, 56. 

Froebel, 258. 

G. 

Galileo, 134. 

Galle, Dr., 136. 

Genius, 10. 

Geometric Reasoning, 142. 

Generalization, 223. 

Gladstone, 131. 

Gorden, Dr., 9. 

Growth of the Teacher, 76. 

Gulf of Mexico, 101. 

H. 

Halleck, 139. 
Hamilton, Dr., 227. 
Harris. Dr. W. T., 68. 
Harvard University, 78. 
Heating, 42. 
Herbart, 220. 

Heredity — In Lower Ani- 
mals, 6. 
Does Little for Man, 7. 



INDEX 



295 



Herschel, 151. 

Home, The — Educational 
Function of, 24. 
Unit in Civilization, 25. 
Traditions Preserved by, 
27. 
Home for the Teacher, 280. 
Home Training— Importance 

of, 25. 
Home Work, 160. 
Honolulu, 96. 
Home, Prof. H. H., 24. 
Huxley, 260. 



Ideas — Before Words, 151. 

With Words, 152. 
Illustrations, Use of, 209. 
Imagination, 118. 
Induction, 136. 

Perfect and Imperfect, 

140. 
Mathematical, 141. 
Inductive Philosophy, 105. 
Industrial Education, 34. 
Industrial Training, 111. 
Infancy — Period of, Lacking 
in Lowest Forms, 5. 
Helplessness of Human 

Infancy, 6. 
Necessity for Long Pe- 
riod of, 12. 
Interest, 148. 
Interscholastic Leagues, 266. 

J. 

Janssen, 21. 

Jenner, 21. 

Jesus— His Teachings, 230. 

Judgment, 126. 

Mistakes in, 133. 
Jupiter, 135. 
Juke Family, The, 9. 

K. 

Kallikak Family, The, 9. 
Keller, Helen, 116. 



Knowledge, Acquisition of, 
44. 
Different Degrees in 

Value of, 18. 
Should Be First Hand, 
100. 
Known to Unknown, 119. 

L. 

Laboratory Method, 103. 
Language, Useful in Thought 

Training, 151. 
Lesson, The, 154. 

Assignment of, 154, 155, 

156. 
Its Aim, 157. 
Its Subject, 157. 
Preparation of, 169. 
Proper Length, 149. 
Subject Plan of, 157. 
Lesson Assignment — Princi- 
ples for, 163. 
Time for, 166. 
Lesson Plans— Develop Good 
Habits, 176. 
Models of, 182, 184, 187, 

196, 200. 
Preparation of, 180. 
Provision for Summa- 
ries, 181. 
Supplementary material 

in, 181. 
Steps in, 173. 
Lesson Problems — Assign- 
ment of, 164. 
Le Verrier, 136. 
Light in Classroom, 41. 
Light— Velocity of, 135. 
Lincoln, City of, 36. 
Long, Dr. Crawford, 22. 
Loyalty, 87. 

M. 

Mammals— Care for Their 
Young, 5. 

]y[ an — His Inheritances, His 
Individuality, His 
Family Traits, 8. 

Marconi, 96. 



296 



INDEX 



Mars, 94. 

Matagorda Bay, 101. 
Memory — Types of, 59. 
Mind, The, 117. 
Missionary — His Achieve- 
ments, 30. 
Modern Education, 16. 
Monroe, 227. 
Montessori, 258. 
Morgan, 153. 

Mosquito — Life Cycle of, 4. 
Mothers' Clubs, 160. 
Moving Picture, 107. 
Music, 109. 
McMurray, 227. 

N. 
Nebraska, University of, 36. 
Neptune, 93, 138. 
Newton, 135, 151. 
Newcomb, Simon, 234. 
New York City, 263. 
Note Book, Abuse of, 114. 

O. 

Observation, 118, 123. 
Olympic Games, 266. 
One Teacher School — Disad- 
vantages of, 277. 
Opportunities for Service, 21. 

P. 

Parent and Teachers' Asso- 
ciations, 160. 
Particular to the General, 

124. 
Pasteur, 21, 96. 
Payne, Joseph, 239, 242, 249. 
Penalties, 255. 
Percept, 118. 
Perception, 117. 
Pestalozzi, 258. 
Phonograph, 110. 
Physical Training, 35. 
Pisa, University of, 134. 
Plasticity, Period of, 12. 
Play — An Agency in Educa- 
tion, 257. 

Apparatus for, 263. 

In Education, 257. 

Its Value, 261. 



Poe, 10. 

Power, Means for, 45. 

Preparation, 

Of Lesson, 155. 
Presentation, 223. 
Promotion of Pupils, 234. 
Punishment, Principles Gov- 
erning, 256. 

Q. 

Question and Answer Meth- 
od, 214. 
Questioning — 

Faulty Method of, 128. 



R. 



Reasoning, 127. 
Recitation, The, 155. 

Its Formalities, 208. 

Formal Steps of, 220. 

Its Forms, 209. 

Its Meaning, 205. 

Its Rules, 207. 

Methods of, 212. 

Purposes of, 205. 
Roark, 227. 
Roemer, 135. 
Roman Education, 15. 
Rousseau, 258. 
Rural School Commission, 

275. 
Rural Schools — Course of 
Study for, 282. 

Efficiency Test of, 286. 

No Great Improvement 
in, 276. 

Problems, 275. 

Supervision of, 284. 

S. 

School, The — A Social Cen- 
ter, 49. 

Its Chief Function, 44. 

Its Physical Conditions, 
3fi 

Its Site, 86. 



INDEX 



297 



Not Always the Leader, I 

32. 
Purpose of, 27. 
Relative Inefficiency of, 

47. 
Professional Supervision 

of, 249. 
The Outgrowth of Soci- 
ety, 32. 
School Buildings, 38. 

Definite Plans, 38. 
School Furniture, 41. 
School Government, 250. 
School Grounds, 37. 
School Shades, 41. 
School House — A Social Cen- 
ter 290. 
School Kegulations — Princi- 
ples Governing, 254. 
Means of Inforcing, 255. 
School Unit — Should Be 

Larger, 283. 
Seeley, 237, 243. 
Self Confidence, 253. 
Self Control, 253. 
Sensation, 117. 
Sense Training, 97. 
Sensory Education, 96. 
Service, 19. 
Shakespeare, 10. 
Skill, 97. 

Snedden, Dr. David, 66. 
Socrates, 214. 
Socratic Method, 214. 
Social Efficiency, 20. 
Solitude, Value of, 149. 
Spartan Education, 14. 
Specialization, Effectiveness 

of, 31. 
Standards of Measure, 224. 
State, The — An Educational 

Agency, 28. 
Stereopticon, 107. 
Struger, 227. 

Student, The— His Individu- 
ality, 179. 
His Perspective, 161. 
His Preparation, 173. 
Should Keep Study 
Schedule, 177. 



Should Do Systematic 
Study, 176. 

His Viewpoint, 219. 
Study— Factors of, 172. 

Improper Methods of, 
169. 

Motive for, 172. 
Superficial Study, 170. 
Supplementary Material, 174. 
Syllogism, 127. 
Sympathy, 253. 



T. 

Teacher, The— An Architect, 
229. 
A Citizen of the Commu- 
nity, 80. 
A Leader in the Commu- 
nity, 51. 
His Attitude, 81. 
His Character, 73. 
Methods of His Growth, 

78, 79. 
His Individuality, 235. 
His Personality, 81. 
His Rewards, 87. 
His Scholarship, 74. 
His Three-Fold Task, 

178. 
His True Worth, 85. 
His Liberty, 232. 
Must Find Material, 162. 
Must Know His Subject, 

167. 
Must Observe Princi- 
ples, 232. 
Should Be Just, 236. 
Should Be Unhampered, 

55. 
What He Should Do for 

His Pupil, 150. 
Types of, 82. 
Teaching — A Profession, not 
a Trade, 81. 
Evil Effects of, 31. 
Testing Results of, 228. 
Team Work, 270. 



298 



INDEX 



Temperature of Classroom, 

42. 
Thinking, 126, 145. 

Process of, 126. 
Topic Method, 214. 
Track Work, 265. 
Transportation of Pupils, 
281 

Cost of, 282. 

Benefits of, 281. 

U. 

Uranus, 136, 139. 



Ventilation, 42. 
Vulcan, 94. 

W. 

Waterloo, 262. 
Webster, Daniel, 131. 
White, Dr. E. E., 238. 
Whittier, 103. 
Words Before Ideas, 151. 



Youth, Habit Formation Pe- 
riod, 12. 



